🔬 UPSC + MPSC Science and Technology Special 2026
50 Science and Technology
India Q&A — Complete 2026
Space (ISRO/SpaDeX/Gaganyaan), Biotechnology (CRISPR/CAR-T), Nuclear (PFBR), Quantum Mission, AI, Semiconductors, Green Hydrogen, Digital India — 50 Q&As with UPSC Mains templates and revision table!
50
Q&A full answers
5
Parts covering all topics
10-15
S&T Qs per Prelims
GS3
Mains Paper 3
2026
Prelims 24 May
Science and Technology contributes 10-15 questions in every UPSC Prelims and 3-5 questions in Mains GS Paper 3. This Q&A set covers every high-yield topic — from Chandrayaan-3 landing and SpaDeX docking to CRISPR gene editing and NexCAR19 CAR-T therapy, from PFBR nuclear criticality to National Quantum Mission's 1,000-km QKD milestone. Updated to April 2026! 🎯
🔬 S&T Key Numbers — Must Know for UPSC 2026
23 Aug 2023
Chandrayaan-3 South Pole landing | National Space Day
Jan 2025
SpaDeX docking — India = 4th docking nation
₹6,003 Cr
National Quantum Mission outlay (2023-2031)
₹10,372 Cr
India AI Mission budget approved 2024
₹76,000 Cr
India Semiconductor Mission scheme
5 MMT
Green Hydrogen target by 2030 (NGHM)
6 Apr 2026
PFBR Kalpakkam achieves first criticality
100 GW+
India solar capacity crossed 2024 (5th globally)
🚀
Part A — Space Technology and ISRO
GS3 Space · Q 1-10
1
SpaceGS3 Prelims
What are the differences between PSLV, GSLV and LVM3? Why is PSLV called ISRO's workhorse?
PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle): 4-stage alternating solid-liquid engine; launches satellites into Polar and Sun-Synchronous Orbits (SSO); payload ~1.75 tonnes to SSO; most reliable — used for Chandrayaan-1, MOM (Mangalyaan), Resourcesat, Cartosat. Called 'workhorse' due to 50+ successful consecutive launches. GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle): Uses indigenous cryogenic engine (CE-7.5); launches heavier satellites to Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO); payload ~2.5 tonnes to GTO; used for INSAT, GSAT, South Asia Satellite. LVM3 (Launch Vehicle Mark-3, formerly GSLV Mk-III): India's heaviest rocket; 3-stage; cryogenic upper stage CE-20; payload ~4 tonnes to GTO / 8 tonnes to LEO; used for Chandrayaan-3, OneWeb commercial mission, and planned for Gaganyaan (crewed mission).
🎯 PSLV = polar orbits (workhorse) | GSLV = geostationary (cryogenic engine) | LVM3 = heaviest (Chandrayaan-3 + Gaganyaan) | Cryogenic = liquid hydrogen + liquid oxygen engine
2
SpaceGS3 Prelims
What was Chandrayaan-3 (2023)? What is the significance of its landing at the lunar south pole?
Chandrayaan-3 successfully soft-landed on the lunar south pole on 23 August 2023 — making India the 4th country to achieve a soft landing on the Moon (after USA, USSR/Russia, China) and the 1st to land near the south pole. Components: Vikram lander + Pragyan rover (no orbiter — used Chandrayaan-2's orbiter). South Pole significance: Permanently shadowed craters contain water ice (confirmed by Chandrayaan-1's M3 instrument in 2008) — critical for future human missions (drinking water, hydrogen fuel for rockets, oxygen). Pragyan rover discovered sulphur in lunar south pole soil — first-ever detection. Future: Chandrayaan-4 (targeted ~2028) = sample return mission using LVM3. National Space Day: 23 August (declared to commemorate Chandrayaan-3 landing date).
🎯 Chandrayaan-3 = 23 August 2023 | 1st country at lunar south pole | 4th country for lunar soft landing | Pragyan found sulphur | National Space Day = 23 August
3
SpaceGS3 Prelims
What is Gaganyaan? What are India's current human spaceflight milestones?
Gaganyaan is India's first human spaceflight programme. Key facts: 3-member crew; 400 km orbit; 3-day mission; splashdown in Bay of Bengal. Milestones towards Gaganyaan: (1) TV-D1 (Oct 2023): Crew Escape System test — successful; (2) 4 Indian Astronaut-Designates (Vyomanauts): Prasanth Balakrishnan Nair, Ajit Krishnan, Angad Pratap, Shubhanshu Shukla — trained in Russia/India; (3) Uncrewed Gaganyaan-1 planned for 2026; crewed mission ~2027. Shubhanshu Shukla: Set to fly to ISS on NASA's Axiom Mission (Ax-4) — first Indian on ISS since Rakesh Sharma (1984). ISRO's space station (Bharatiya Antariksha Station) planned by 2035.
🎯 Gaganyaan = 3 crew, 400km orbit, 3 days | Vyomanauts = 4 trained astronauts | Shubhanshu Shukla → ISS via Axiom Ax-4 | BAS (India space station) by 2035 | Rakesh Sharma = first Indian in space (1984)
4
SpaceGS3 Prelims
What is SpaDeX? What is its significance for India's space programme?
SpaDeX (Space Docking Experiment) was launched on 30 December 2024 and successfully demonstrated space docking on 16 January 2025. Two small spacecraft (SDX01 Chaser + SDX02 Target) autonomously docked in orbit. Significance: India became the 4th country to demonstrate space docking (after USA, Russia, China). Space docking is critical for: (1) Gaganyaan crewed missions; (2) Future Indian space station (BAS); (3) Chandrayaan-4 sample return mission (requires docking in lunar orbit); (4) Satellite servicing. ISRO's private sector: IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre) promotes private space companies — OneWeb launches from ISRO, Skyroot, Agnikul Cosmos (first private Indian rocket in 2024). NewSpace India Ltd (NSIL): ISRO's commercial arm.
🎯 SpaDeX = space docking Jan 2025 | India = 4th docking nation | Critical for Gaganyaan + BAS + Chandrayaan-4 | IN-SPACe = private space regulator | NSIL = ISRO commercial arm
5
SpaceGS3 Prelims
What is Aditya-L1? What are Lagrange points and why is L1 important for solar observation?
Aditya-L1 was launched on 2 September 2023 and reached the Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 1 (L1) in January 2024 — India's first solar observation mission. Lagrange Points: 5 gravitational equilibrium points in the Sun-Earth system where a small object can maintain a stable position (gravity of two large bodies balances centripetal force). L1 is 1.5 million km from Earth toward the Sun. Why L1: Uninterrupted view of the Sun (no eclipses); constant solar observation. Aditya-L1 carries 7 payloads studying: Solar corona, solar wind, solar flares, Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs). UPSC significance: Solar flares and CMEs affect satellite communications, GPS, power grids — Earth's space weather. The Sun is entering Solar Maximum (2025) — Aditya-L1 is monitoring this peak activity period.
🎯 Aditya-L1 = India's first solar mission | L1 = 1.5 million km from Earth | Reached L1 January 2024 | 7 payloads | Studies solar wind, corona, CMEs | Solar Maximum 2025
6
SpaceGS3 Prelims
What is NISAR? Who built it and what will it do?
NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar) is a joint Earth observation satellite developed by NASA (USA) + ISRO (India) — launched by ISRO using GSLV. Cost: ~$1.5 billion — one of the most expensive Earth observation satellites. Key features: (1) Dual-band radar — L-band (NASA) + S-band (ISRO); (2) All-weather, day-and-night imaging capability; (3) Will scan Earth every 12 days. Applications: Monitoring glaciers and ice sheets (climate change); tracking ground deformation (earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides); mapping forests and wetlands; agricultural yield estimation; urban subsidence monitoring. Orbit: Near-polar sun-synchronous orbit. Significance for India: Monitors Himalayan glaciers, coastal erosion, agricultural areas, disaster management. Launched from Sriharikota using GSLV in 2024.
🎯 NISAR = NASA + ISRO joint satellite | L-band (NASA) + S-band (ISRO) | All-weather day/night imaging | Scans Earth every 12 days | Monitors glaciers, earthquakes, agriculture
7
SpaceGS3 Prelims
What is NavIC? How is it different from GPS?
NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) — India's own regional satellite navigation system, operated by ISRO. Previously called IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System). Constellation: 8 satellites (7 functional + 1 spare) in GEO and GSO orbits; coverage over India and 1,500 km surrounding region. Accuracy: 5-20 metres for civilian users (SPS — Standard Positioning Service); better than 5 metres for military (RS — Restricted Service). L5 and S-band signals. NVS (NavIC Replacement Satellites): Next-generation NavIC satellites — NVS-01, NVS-02 launched 2023-24; add L1 band for smartphone compatibility. Why NavIC matters: GPS (USA) can be denied during conflicts — NavIC ensures India's navigation sovereignty. Applications: Fishing vessel tracking, disaster management, personal navigation, precision agriculture.
🎯 NavIC = India's regional GPS | 8 satellites | Coverage = India + 1,500 km | Accuracy 5-20m (civilian) | NVS series = adds L1 band for smartphones | GPS can be denied — NavIC = strategic autonomy
8
SpaceGS3
What is the Mission Shakti anti-satellite (ASAT) test (2019)? What are its implications?
Mission Shakti (27 March 2019): India conducted its first Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile test, shooting down its own Microsat-R satellite in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) at ~300 km altitude. India became the 4th country with ASAT capability (after USA, Russia, China). Key details: Exo-atmospheric kill vehicle (hit-to-kill kinetic energy); no active warhead; target = Indian satellite. Why LEO: Low altitude ensures debris decays rapidly in Earth's atmosphere (most within weeks) — minimising space debris concerns. Strategic implications: Enhances India's deterrence in space domain; qualifies India for advanced space security discussions; linked to credible minimum deterrence doctrine. Criticism: Space debris concerns despite low altitude choice; 'peaceful use of space' principles; Outer Space Treaty (1967) implications.
🎯 Mission Shakti = 27 March 2019 | LEO ~300 km | 4th ASAT nation (USA, Russia, China, India) | Hit-to-kill kinetic vehicle | Low altitude = rapid debris decay | Outer Space Treaty 1967 applies
9
SpaceGS3
What is IN-SPACe and how has India reformed its space sector for private participation?
India transformed its space sector with the Indian Space Policy 2023 allowing private sector participation. IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre, 2020): Single-window regulator for private space activities; grants access to ISRO facilities to private players; promotes non-governmental entities (NGEs) in space. Key private players: Skyroot Aerospace (Vikram-S — India's first private rocket, Nov 2022); Agnikul Cosmos (Agnibaan SOrTeD — world's first single-piece 3D-printed rocket engine, May 2024); Pixxel (earth observation), Dhruva Space (satellites). NSIL (NewSpace India Ltd): ISRO's commercial arm — manages commercial launches (OneWeb missions), satellite manufacturing orders. National Space Day: 23 August (Chandrayaan-3 landing anniversary). India targets ₹1.5 lakh crore space economy by 2047.
🎯 IN-SPACe = private space regulator (2020) | Indian Space Policy 2023 | Skyroot = first private Indian rocket | Agnikul = first 3D-printed rocket engine (2024) | NSIL = ISRO commercial arm
10
SpaceGS3
What is the significance of the ISRO-ESA partnership and the Artemis Accords for India's space diplomacy?
India's space diplomacy key milestones: (1) Artemis Accords (June 2023): India signed US-led Artemis Accords — principles for safe and transparent lunar and space exploration; commits to peaceful exploration, transparency, interoperability, sharing of scientific data. India is the 27th signatory. (2) ISRO-NASA collaboration: NISAR satellite; Axiom Mission (Shubhanshu Shukla to ISS); training exchange programmes. (3) ISRO-ESA: Earth observation data sharing, satellite navigation cooperation. (4) Quad Space Working Group: Space cooperation among USA, India, Japan, Australia — satellite data sharing for disaster management and climate monitoring. India maintains 'strategic autonomy' — cooperates with all without exclusive alliance. India's space exports and commercial launches (OneWeb, Amazon Kuiper contracts) boost revenue.
🎯 Artemis Accords: India = 27th signatory (June 2023) | NISAR = NASA-ISRO joint | Quad Space Working Group | India cooperates with all = strategic autonomy | OneWeb + Amazon Kuiper = commercial contracts
🧬
Part B — Biotechnology and Health Technology
GS3 Biotech · Q 11-20
11
BiotechGS3 Prelims
What is CRISPR-Cas9? Why is it called 'molecular scissors' and what are its applications in India?
CRISPR-Cas9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats — CRISPR Associated Protein 9): Revolutionary gene-editing tool that allows precise cutting and editing of DNA at specific locations. Called 'molecular scissors' because: Cas9 protein acts as scissors; guide RNA directs it to exact DNA sequence; DNA can be cut, deleted, or replaced with new sequences. Nobel Prize 2020: Jennifer Doudna (USA) and Emmanuelle Charpentier (France) won Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Applications in India: (1) CRISPR for sickle cell and thalassemia — DBT funds research; (2) GM Crops: Disease-resistant bananas, high-yield rice; (3) Malaria mosquito gene drives (controversial); (4) Casgevy (2023): World's first CRISPR-based therapy approved (FDA + MHRA) for sickle cell disease. GEAC regulates GM organisms in India.
🎯 CRISPR = molecular scissors | Nobel 2020 = Doudna + Charpentier | Cas9 = cutting enzyme | Casgevy = first CRISPR therapy approved 2023 | GEAC = India's GM regulator | DBT funds Indian CRISPR research
12
BiotechGS3 Prelims
What is CAR-T Cell Therapy? What is the significance of India's NexCAR19?
CAR-T Cell Therapy (Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell Therapy): Revolutionary cancer immunotherapy. Process: (1) Patient's own T-cells (immune cells) collected; (2) Genetically engineered in lab to produce Chimeric Antigen Receptors (CARs) that recognise cancer cells; (3) Re-infused into patient to attack cancer. Most effective for blood cancers (leukaemia, lymphoma). Cost: USA = ₹3-4 crore; India's version = fraction of cost. NexCAR19: India's first indigenous CAR-T cell therapy developed by IIT Bombay + Tata Memorial Hospital. Approved by CDSCO (Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation) in October 2023. Targets CD19 protein on B-cell cancers. Cost: ~₹30-40 lakh (vs ₹3-4 crore imported). Manufactured by ImmunoACT. Significance: Democratises cutting-edge cancer therapy; Make in India for biotech; India = first developing country with approved CAR-T therapy.
🎯 CAR-T = T-cells + genetic engineering = cancer killer | NexCAR19 = IIT Bombay + Tata Memorial | Approved by CDSCO Oct 2023 | Cost ₹30-40L vs ₹3-4 crore (imported) | First developing country with approved CAR-T
13
BiotechGS3 Prelims
What are mRNA vaccines? How did India contribute to COVID-19 vaccine development?
mRNA Vaccines: Use messenger RNA (mRNA) — genetic instructions — to teach cells to produce a protein (e.g., COVID spike protein) that triggers immune response. How it works: mRNA → enters cells → ribosomes produce antigen protein → immune response → antibodies formed → mRNA degrades. Does NOT alter DNA. Advantages: Rapid development; no live virus; adaptable. COVID-19 vaccines: Pfizer-BioNTech (Comirnaty) and Moderna = first approved mRNA vaccines. India's contribution: (1) Covaxin (Bharat Biotech): Whole inactivated virus vaccine — world-first of its type approved under Emergency Use; (2) Covishield (SII/AstraZeneca): Viral vector (adenovirus); (3) Corbevax (Biological-E): Protein subunit; (4) iNNOVACC: India's indigenous nasal vaccine (intranasal delivery). Largest vaccination programme: 220+ crore doses in India.
🎯 mRNA vaccine = genetic instructions | Does NOT alter DNA | Covaxin = whole inactivated (Bharat Biotech) | Covishield = viral vector (SII) | Corbevax = protein subunit | iNNOVACC = nasal vaccine | 220+ crore doses in India
14
BiotechGS3
What are GM Crops? What is the status of GM crops in India?
GM (Genetically Modified) Crops have their DNA modified to introduce desirable traits (pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, higher yield, nutritional enhancement). India's GM crop status: (1) Bt Cotton (approved 2002): Only approved GM crop in India; contains Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) gene producing insecticidal Cry protein — kills bollworm; India now world's largest cotton producer; ~90% of India's cotton area uses Bt cotton. (2) GM Mustard (DMH-11): Developed by Delhi University; expresses barnase-barstar system for hybridization; GEAC approved in 2022 but regulatory/legal challenges continued; SC stayed commercial release pending review. (3) Bt Brinjal: GEAC approved (2009) but placed under moratorium by Environment Minister due to public opposition. GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee): Under MoEFCC — India's top GM regulatory body.
🎯 Bt Cotton = only approved GM crop in India (2002) | ~90% cotton area is Bt | GM Mustard DMH-11 = SC stay pending | Bt Brinjal = moratorium | GEAC = GM regulator under MoEFCC
15
BiotechGS3
What is stem cell therapy? What diseases can it treat and what are ethical concerns?
Stem Cells: Undifferentiated cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation into specialised cell types. Types: (1) Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs): From inner cell mass of blastocyst; pluripotent (can become any cell type); ethical concerns — destruction of embryos; (2) Adult Stem Cells: Found in bone marrow, blood, skin; multipotent (limited differentiation); used in clinical treatments; (3) iPSCs (induced Pluripotent Stem Cells): Adult cells reprogrammed to embryonic-like state — Nobel Prize 2012 to Shinya Yamanaka. Treatments in India: Leukaemia (bone marrow transplant = oldest stem cell therapy); Thalassemia; cornea damage; burns. Ethical concerns: ESC research = destruction of embryos = 'right to life' debate; cloning risks; commercialisation concerns; clinical trial regulation (CDSCO). National Guidelines for Stem Cell Research: 2017.
🎯 Stem cells = undifferentiated, self-renewing | iPSC Nobel 2012 = Yamanaka | Bone marrow transplant = oldest stem cell therapy | ESC = ethical concern (embryo destruction) | CDSCO regulates clinical trials
16
BiotechGS3 Prelims
What is India's Genome India Project and why is it significant?
Genome India Project: India's ambitious initiative to sequence the genomes of 10,000 Indians representing the country's diverse population. Launched 2020 by Department of Biotechnology (DBT). Implemented by: Indian Institute of Science (IISc) as lead, with 20 partner institutions. Why significant: (1) India has one of world's most genetically diverse populations — 4,700+ population groups, many endogamous (marry within group); (2) Identifies disease-causing genetic variants specific to Indian populations; (3) Enables precision medicine — personalised drug treatments based on genetic profile; (4) Discovers genetic basis of diseases prevalent in India (diabetes, heart disease, thalassemia); (5) Data stored in IndiGen database. Future: Scale to 1 million genomes. UPSC Mains: Linked to biotechnology, precision medicine, DBT initiatives, Right to Privacy (genomic data is sensitive personal data).
🎯 Genome India Project = 10,000 Indian genomes | DBT + IISc + 20 institutions | India = 4,700+ population groups | Precision medicine + Indian disease variants | IndiGen database | Genomic data = privacy concern
17
BiotechGS3
What are biofuels and what is India's National Biofuel Policy?
Biofuels: Fuels derived from biological materials (biomass). Types: (1) 1st Generation: From food crops — sugarcane ethanol, maize ethanol; food vs fuel debate; (2) 2nd Generation: From agricultural waste/lignocellulosic biomass — rice straw, bagasse; avoids food competition; (3) 3rd Generation: From algae — high oil content, grows on wastewater; (4) 4th Generation: Genetically engineered organisms for biofuel production. India's National Biofuel Policy 2018 (revised 2022): Target: 20% ethanol blending in petrol by 2025 (E20); India achieved ~15% blending by 2024 (ahead of original 2030 target). Also targets biodiesel blending. E20 Impact: Reduces oil import bill; lowers carbon emissions; benefits sugar farmers (extra income from surplus sugarcane to ethanol). Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
🎯 National Biofuel Policy 2018 | E20 target = 20% ethanol in petrol by 2025 | India ~15% blending by 2024 | 1st Gen = food crops | 2nd Gen = agricultural waste | 3rd Gen = algae | Reduces oil import bill
18
HealthGS3
What is One Health Approach? Why is it important for India?
One Health is an integrated approach recognising that human health, animal health, and ecosystem health are interconnected. Coined post-SARS (2003); formalised by WHO, FAO, UNEP, WOAH (World Organisation for Animal Health) in 2021 Joint Plan of Action. Why for India: (1) India has >50% of global zoonotic disease burden — diseases that jump from animals to humans (COVID-19, Nipah, H5N1 bird flu, Rabies, Brucellosis); (2) High livestock population (India has world's largest cattle herd); (3) Dense human-animal interface in rural India; (4) Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) spreads across human-animal-environment interfaces. India's One Health initiatives: National One Health Mission; ICMR-DBT-ICAR collaboration; AMR Action Plan. UPSC: Zoonoses, AMR, biosecurity, pandemic preparedness — all linked to One Health.
🎯 One Health = human + animal + ecosystem health linked | WHO + FAO + UNEP + WOAH = 4 agencies | India = >50% global zoonotic burden | COVID-19, Nipah, H5N1 = zoonotic diseases | AMR spreads across interfaces
19
BiotechGS3
What is India's Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)? How does it prevent biopiracy?
TKDL (Traditional Knowledge Digital Library): A database of India's traditional medicinal knowledge (Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Yoga) in digital format, accessible to patent offices worldwide. Developed by CSIR + Ministry of AYUSH. Contains 3.4+ million medicinal formulations in 5 languages (English, French, German, Spanish, Japanese). How it prevents biopiracy: When a foreign company files a patent on Indian traditional knowledge (e.g., turmeric for wound healing, neem as pesticide), TKDL provides 'prior art' evidence to patent offices (USPTO, EPO) to reject/revoke the patent. Key cases won: Turmeric patent (revoked — USPTO); Neem biopesticide patent (revoked — EPO); Basmati rice (partial revocation). UPSC relevance: IPR, biopiracy, traditional knowledge, CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) and Nagoya Protocol on access and benefit sharing.
🎯 TKDL = 3.4 million medicinal formulations | CSIR + Ministry of AYUSH | 5 languages | Prior art = prevents false patents | Turmeric + Neem + Basmati = biopiracy cases won | Nagoya Protocol = benefit sharing
20
HealthGS3
What is Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)? Why is India particularly vulnerable?
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): When bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites evolve to resist the effects of antimicrobial medicines (antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals). Called 'silent pandemic' — kills ~1.27 million people annually worldwide (Lancet, 2022). Causes: Overuse/misuse of antibiotics; self-medication; antibiotic use in livestock; poor sanitation; inadequate diagnostics. Why India vulnerable: (1) World's largest consumer of antibiotics; (2) OTC (over-the-counter) antibiotic sale without prescription (until stricter regulations); (3) Dense population + poor sanitation = bacterial transmission; (4) High burden of infectious diseases = antibiotic overuse; (5) Antibiotic use in poultry and aquaculture. India's AMR Action Plan (2017): Surveillance; infection prevention; research. New Drugs = last resort (Colistin, Carbapenem). National AMR Surveillance Network (NARS-Net).
🎯 AMR = silent pandemic | 1.27 million deaths/year (Lancet 2022) | India = world's largest antibiotic consumer | OTC antibiotics = major cause | India AMR Action Plan 2017 | NARS-Net = surveillance network
⚛️
Part C — Nuclear, Quantum and Defence Technology
GS3 Defence · Q 21-30
21
NuclearGS3 Prelims
What is India's 3-stage nuclear programme? What role does the PFBR play?
India's 3-stage nuclear programme, conceived by Homi J. Bhabha, optimises India's limited uranium but vast thorium (25% of world's thorium) reserves: Stage 1 — Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs): Use natural uranium; produce electricity + plutonium as by-product. India has 22 operational reactors (PHWR dominant). Stage 2 — Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs): Use plutonium from Stage 1 + depleted uranium; breed more plutonium than consumed; also breed U-233 from thorium blanket. PFBR (Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor) — 500 MWe, Kalpakkam: Achieved first criticality on 6 April 2026; sodium-cooled, pool-type; developed by BHAVINI. India = 2nd country (after Russia) to operate commercial FBR. Stage 3 — Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWRs): Use U-233 bred from thorium + thorium fuel; India's vast thorium reserves can power India for 60,000 years.
🎯 3-stage: PHWR → FBR → AHWR | PFBR = Stage 2 | Kalpakkam | First criticality April 6, 2026 | BHAVINI develops | India = 2nd country (after Russia) for FBR | Thorium = 25% world reserves = Stage 3 fuel
22
NuclearGS3
What is India's nuclear doctrine? What are its key principles?
India's Nuclear Doctrine (1999, revised 2003): Three key principles: (1) No First Use (NFU): India will not use nuclear weapons first; will only retaliate if attacked with nuclear/biological/chemical weapons. However, 2019 statements by Defence Minister suggested possible revision. (2) Credible Minimum Deterrence: Maintain minimum nuclear force needed to deter adversaries — not arms race. (3) Massive Retaliation: Any nuclear attack on India will result in massive retaliatory response causing unacceptable damage. Nuclear Triad: Delivery capability from land (Agni missiles), air (Rafale + Jaguar with nuclear capability), sea (INS Arihant — nuclear submarine with K-4/K-15 SLBMs). INS Arihant: India's first nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) — completes the nuclear triad. Civil nuclear deals: India-US 123 Agreement (2008).
🎯 NFU = No First Use | Credible Minimum Deterrence | Massive Retaliation | Nuclear Triad = land (Agni) + air (Rafale) + sea (INS Arihant) | INS Arihant = first Indian SSBN | 123 Agreement = India-US civil nuclear deal
23
NuclearGS3
What are Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)? Why is India investing in them?
SMRs (Small Modular Reactors): Advanced nuclear reactors with power output typically up to 300 MWe — much smaller than conventional reactors (1,000+ MWe). Key advantages: Factory-built (modular); shorter construction time; lower upfront cost; can be sited in remote areas; can provide process heat for industry; safer passive cooling designs. India's SMR push (Budget 2025-26): ₹20,000 crore allocated for private-sector-driven SMR R&D. Global SMR status: Russia's RITM-200 (icebreaker-based) is only operational SMR; China, USA, Canada, UK have SMRs under development. India's SMR plans: Bharat Small Reactors (BSR) being developed by BARC and NPCIL; Private sector (to be allowed under new nuclear energy policy). ITER: International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (fusion) — India is one of 7 partners (India, EU, USA, Russia, China, Japan, South Korea); India contributes magnet systems and cryostat.
🎯 SMR = up to 300 MWe | Factory-built, modular | Budget 2025-26 = ₹20,000 crore for SMR R&D | Russia = only operational SMR globally | India's BSR by BARC + NPCIL | ITER = fusion project (7 partners including India)
24
DefenceGS3 Prelims
What are the Agni and BrahMos missile systems? What are their significance?
Agni Series (DRDO + BDL): India's ballistic missile family. Agni-I (700-1,200km); Agni-II (2,000-3,000km); Agni-III (3,000-5,000km); Agni-IV (3,500-4,000km); Agni-V (5,000-8,000km — ICBM class, MIRV capability — Multiple Independently targetable Re-entry Vehicle, tested 2024); Agni-P (1,000-2,000km — lighter, advanced version). BrahMos (India-Russia joint venture): Supersonic cruise missile (Mach 2.8-3); Range 450+ km (extended range); both land-attack and anti-ship capability; inducted in all 3 services. BrahMos-NG (Next Gen): Smaller, lighter for fighter jets. BrahMos Hypersonic: Under development (Mach 6+). BrahMos exported to Philippines (2022) — India's first missile export to Southeast Asia. K-series: Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) — K-4 (3,500km), K-15 (750km) — for INS Arihant.
🎯 Agni-V = ICBM class (5,000-8,000km) + MIRV (2024) | BrahMos = Mach 2.8-3, 450+km | BrahMos exported to Philippines (2022) | K-4/K-15 = submarine missiles | DRDO develops Agni | BrahMos = India-Russia JV
25
DefenceGS3
What is iDEX and how is it promoting defence innovation in India?
iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence): Launched 2018 under Ministry of Defence. Platform for startups, MSMEs, and innovators to solve defence technology challenges. Works through 'DPP (Defence Problems Proposals)' — challenges posted; solutions funded. Key features: Grants up to ₹1.5 crore per innovator; fast-tracked procurement; connects startups with DRDO and armed forces. Achievements: 300+ challenges issued; 100+ contracts signed; startups working on: drones, AI, cyber security, advanced materials, underwater systems. DISC (Defence India Start-up Challenge): Under iDEX — specific challenges for startups. Defence Corridors: Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow-Aligarh corridor) and Tamil Nadu (Chennai-Coimbatore corridor) — manufacturing hubs for defence industry. India's defence exports: ₹21,083 crore (FY24) — target ₹50,000 crore by 2029.
🎯 iDEX = defence startups + grants up to ₹1.5 crore | Launched 2018 | 300+ challenges | 100+ contracts | DISC = Defence India Start-up Challenge | Defence corridors = UP + Tamil Nadu | Defence exports FY24 = ₹21,083 crore
26
DefenceGS3
What is India's Drone Policy 2021? What are the key drone technologies India is developing?
Drone Rules 2021: Liberalised drone regulations; introduced colour-coded map for no-fly zones (red/yellow/green); enables BVLOS (Beyond Visual Line of Sight) operations; facilitates drone manufacturing + exports. India's Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for drones + drone components. Key technologies: (1) Swarm Drones: Multiple coordinated autonomous drones for surveillance/attack; DRDO's Swarm Drone System demonstrated. (2) Kamikaze/Loitering Munitions: Israeli-origin now being made indigenously — Nagastra-1 (India's first kamikaze drone, Solar Industries). (3) Project Cheetah: Multi-role drones for army. (4) TAPAS (Tactical Airborne Platform for Aerial Surveillance): Medium-altitude drone by DRDO. Defence Drone Academy: Hindon. India targets: Drone manufacturing hub, 1 lakh drone pilots, exports of $5 billion by 2030.
🎯 Drone Rules 2021 = liberalised | BVLOS operations enabled | Nagastra-1 = India's first kamikaze drone (Solar Industries) | TAPAS = DRDO surveillance drone | Swarm Drones = multiple coordinated autonomous | PLI for drones
27
QuantumGS3 Prelims
What is the National Quantum Mission (NQM)? What are its 3 domains?
National Quantum Mission (NQM): Launched 2023; ₹6,003 crore outlay for 2023-2031. India's comprehensive strategy for quantum technology development. 3 domains: (1) Quantum Computing: Build 50-1,000+ qubit quantum computers; currently India has prototype systems; development of error correction methods. (2) Quantum Communication / QKD (Quantum Key Distribution): Unhackable encrypted communication using quantum mechanics (photon polarization); NQM achieved 1,000 km QKD milestone in 2026; satellite-based QKD (quantum satellite planned). (3) Quantum Sensing and Metrology: Ultra-precise sensors for navigation, healthcare, gravity mapping — can detect submarines, minerals underground. Key players: QNu Labs (QKD startup), C-DOT, DRDO. T-Hubs: 4 Technology Hubs (T-Hubs) under NQM for quantum R&D. International link: India-US Quantum Coordination Mechanism under iCET.
🎯 NQM = ₹6,003 crore (2023-2031) | 3 domains: Quantum Computing + QKD + Sensing | QKD = unhackable encryption | 1,000 km QKD milestone 2026 | QNu Labs = key startup | iCET India-US quantum cooperation
28
AIGS3
What is India's AI Mission? What is BharatGen?
India AI Mission (2024): Approved by Cabinet with ₹10,372 crore outlay. 7 pillars: (1) AI Compute Infrastructure (10,000 GPUs); (2) Foundation Models and Datasets (for Indian languages); (3) AI Startup Financing; (4) AI for India (government use cases); (5) AI Safety and Trust; (6) AI Research and Innovation; (7) Skilling. BharatGen: India's first government-funded multimodal Large Language Model (LLM) — handles text, audio, video in Indian languages. Developed under NLP (Natural Language Processing) initiative. Target: Models that understand Indian languages, dialects, cultural context — currently LLMs are English-centric. ANRF SARAL AI: AI platform for research funding. IndiaAI portal: Dataset portal for sharing government data with AI researchers. Responsibility: Global Partnership on AI (GPAI) — India is a founding member (2020). UPSC: AI in governance, bias, job displacement, AI safety.
🎯 India AI Mission = ₹10,372 crore | 7 pillars | 10,000 GPUs | BharatGen = India's first govt-funded LLM | ANRF SARAL = AI for research | IndiaAI portal = datasets | GPAI founding member (2020)
29
DigitalGS3
What is India's Semiconductor Mission? Why is semiconductor manufacturing critical?
India Semiconductor Mission (ISM, 2021): ₹76,000 crore scheme to attract semiconductor chip manufacturers. Why critical: Modern semiconductors power everything — mobiles, cars, defence systems, satellites, medical devices; global chip shortage (2020-23) paralysed automobile and electronics industries. India currently depends on imports for ~$50 billion of chips. Key investments (2024): (1) Tata-PSMC (Taiwan): 28nm chip fab in Dholera (Gujarat) — India's first commercial chip fab; ₹91,000 crore; production ~2026; (2) Micron Technology (USA): ATMP (Assembly, Testing, Marking, Packaging) facility in Sanand (Gujarat) — ₹22,516 crore; opened 2024; (3) Tata Electronics + Tejas Networks: ATMP plant in Assam. Design sector: India has ~20% of world's semiconductor design engineers (Qualcomm, Intel, AMD have Indian design centres). India aims to become a global semiconductor hub by 2047.
🎯 India Semiconductor Mission = ₹76,000 crore | Tata-PSMC = 28nm fab in Dholera | Micron = ATMP in Sanand (opened 2024) | India has 20% world's chip design engineers | 28nm = not cutting-edge (TSMC makes 3-5nm) but strategic
30
DigitalGS3
What is the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act 2023? How does it affect technology in India?
DPDP Act 2023: India's first comprehensive data protection law — balances data privacy with enabling innovation. Key concepts: Data Fiduciary: Entity that processes personal data (Google, Amazon, hospitals). Data Principal: Individual whose data is processed. Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs): Large platforms with extra obligations (local data storage, DPO appointment). 7 Principles: Lawfulness, Purpose Limitation, Data Minimisation, Accuracy, Storage Limitation, Security, Accountability. Rights of Data Principal: Access, correction, erasure, grievance redressal, nomination. Data Protection Board (DPB): Adjudicatory body — not a court; handles complaints. Penalties up to ₹250 crore. Technology impact: Cross-border data flows restricted for SDF; AI systems must ensure data privacy; children's data = extra protection (no behavioural advertising). Based on EU's GDPR but more flexible for government.
🎯 DPDP Act 2023 = India's first data protection law | Data Fiduciary = entity processing data | Data Principal = individual | Data Protection Board = adjudicatory body | 7 principles | Based on GDPR | Penalties up to ₹250 crore
💡
Part D — Digital India, Energy and Environment Tech
GS3 Digital · Q 31-40
31
EnergyGS3 Prelims
What is India's Green Hydrogen Mission? Why is green hydrogen called the 'fuel of the future'?
National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023): India's most ambitious clean energy initiative; ₹19,744 crore outlay. Target: Produce 5 million metric tonnes (MMT) of green hydrogen per year by 2030. What is Green Hydrogen: Hydrogen produced by electrolysis of water using renewable electricity (solar/wind) — zero carbon emissions. Compared to: Grey Hydrogen (from natural gas — high emissions); Blue Hydrogen (grey + carbon capture); Pink Hydrogen (nuclear energy). Why 'fuel of future': Zero emissions when burned (produces only water); high energy density; can replace fossil fuels in hard-to-abate sectors (steel, cement, shipping, aviation); can be stored and transported. India's advantages: Abundant solar/wind potential; long coastline for hydrogen export to Japan, South Korea, EU. Green Hydrogen hubs: Vizag, Kandla, Paradip, Tuticorin planned. SECI (Solar Energy Corporation of India) implements hydrogen schemes.
🎯 Green Hydrogen = water electrolysis using renewables | Zero emissions | National Mission = ₹19,744 crore | Target = 5 MMT by 2030 | Grey = natural gas | Blue = grey + CCS | India export markets = Japan, South Korea, EU
32
EnergyGS3 Prelims
What is India's solar energy achievement? What is PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana?
India's Solar Capacity: India crossed 100 GW of solar capacity in 2024 — world's 5th largest solar capacity (after China, USA, Germany, Japan). Target: 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030 (Panchamrit). Solar energy drives India's renewable push: Solar parks (Pavagada = world's largest single-location solar park, 2 GW), offshore solar (soon), rooftop solar. PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana (2024): 1 crore households to install rooftop solar; 300 units of free electricity per month; subsidy up to ₹78,000 for 3kW system; Budget 2025-26: ₹75,000+ crore allocation. Production Linked Incentive (PLI) for Solar PV: ₹24,000 crore PLI for domestic solar module manufacturing — reduces dependence on Chinese solar panels (India currently imports ~70% from China). International Solar Alliance (ISA): India-France joint initiative (2015); HQ Gurugram; 120+ member countries.
🎯 India solar = 100+ GW (2024) | 5th largest globally | Target 500 GW by 2030 | PM Surya Ghar = 300 free units/month | Pavagada = world's largest solar park (2 GW) | ISA = India-France (HQ Gurugram)
33
EnergyGS3
What are electric vehicles (EVs)? What is India's FAME scheme?
Electric Vehicles (EVs): Run on electric motors powered by rechargeable batteries (Lithium-ion dominant). Types: BEV (Battery Electric Vehicle — fully electric), PHEV (Plug-in Hybrid), HEV (Hybrid — no external charging). India EV ecosystem: EV sales reached ~17 lakh units in FY24; 2-wheelers dominate (Ola Electric, TVS, Hero Electric); EV buses (BEST, DTC); Tata Motors leads 4-wheeler EV segment. FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of EVs): FAME-I (2015-19); FAME-II (2019-2024) — ₹10,000 crore; subsidies for EVs + charging infrastructure; 7,432+ charging stations funded. FAME-II ended; now PM E-DRIVE Scheme (2024-26): ₹10,900 crore for electric buses + 2-wheelers + 3-wheelers + charging infrastructure. Battery swapping policy: NITI Aayog recommends for 2/3 wheelers. PLI for EV batteries (ACC — Advanced Chemistry Cell): ₹18,100 crore.
🎯 FAME-II = ₹10,000 crore (2019-2024) | PM E-DRIVE = ₹10,900 crore (new scheme) | India = 17L EV units FY24 | 2-wheelers dominate | PLI for ACC batteries = ₹18,100 crore | NITI Aayog = battery swapping policy
34
EnergyGS3
What is Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)? What is India's position?
CCUS (Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage): Technology to capture CO2 emissions from industrial processes/power plants and either store permanently underground or utilise industrially. Three steps: Capture (post-combustion, pre-combustion, oxy-fuel combustion); Transport (pipelines); Storage (saline aquifers, depleted oil/gas fields) or Utilisation (synthetic fuels, building materials, chemicals). India's relevance: Coal plants provide 55%+ of India's power — CCUS could make coal cleaner during energy transition. CSIR developing Indian CCUS technologies. Challenges: High cost ($50-100/tonne CO2); energy penalty; storage site availability in India limited; no dedicated CCUS policy yet. International: IEA says CCUS needed for 15% of emission reductions globally by 2050; COP agreements increasingly mention CCUS. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) using CO2 = commercial incentive.
🎯 CCUS = capture CO2 from industry → store or utilise | 3 steps: capture + transport + store/utilise | Coal plant decarbonisation key use | India = no dedicated CCUS policy | High cost = $50-100/tonne CO2 | CSIR developing Indian tech
35
TechGS3
What is nanotechnology? What are its applications in agriculture and healthcare?
Nanotechnology: Manipulation of matter at 1-100 nanometre scale (1 nm = 1 billionth of a metre). At this scale, materials exhibit unique properties (quantum effects, high surface area). Healthcare applications: (1) Targeted drug delivery: Nanoparticles deliver drugs directly to tumour cells — reducing side effects (liposomal doxorubicin); (2) Diagnostics: Nano-biosensors for rapid disease detection (COVID-19 tests); (3) Antimicrobial nanoparticles: Silver nanoparticles kill bacteria; (4) Gene therapy: Nanoparticles deliver CRISPR tools. Agriculture applications: (1) Nano-fertilisers — slow-release for reduced wastage; Nano Urea (IFFCO — approved 2021, 500ml replaces 50kg urea bag); (2) Nano-pesticides — targeted delivery, less environmental harm; (3) Nano-sensors for soil health. IFFCO Nano Urea: India's proudest nanotech achievement in agriculture — World's first nano urea liquid; exported to 30+ countries.
🎯 Nanotechnology = 1-100 nm scale | IFFCO Nano Urea = world's first (2021) | 500ml nano urea = 50kg conventional urea bag | Silver nanoparticles = antimicrobial | Nano-biosensors = rapid diagnostics | Targeted drug delivery
36
DigitalGS3 Prelims
What is India's Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)? What is the JAM Trinity?
Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): Foundational digital systems that enable a country's economy and society to function digitally — open, interoperable, and built as public goods. India's DPI is recognised globally as most advanced. JAM Trinity: (1) Jan Dhan Yojana: 53+ crore bank accounts opened; financial inclusion backbone; (2) Aadhaar: 137+ crore enrolled; biometric digital identity; (3) Mobile: 100+ crore smartphone users; internet backbone. India Stack: Collection of APIs built on JAM: UPI (payments), DigiLocker (documents), CoWIN (vaccines), ONDC (commerce), Account Aggregator (financial data sharing), ABDM (health records), e-RUPI (targeted vouchers). Global recognition: India's UPI = 49% of global real-time payments; IMF + World Bank study India's DPI model; G20 2023 = India showcased DPI as global public good; UNDP, World Economic Forum call India DPI a model for developing nations.
🎯 JAM = Jan Dhan + Aadhaar + Mobile | India Stack = APIs: UPI + DigiLocker + CoWIN + ONDC + AA | UPI = 49% global real-time payments | G20 2023 = India DPI as global public good | 53+ crore Jan Dhan accounts
37
DigitalGS3
What is ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce)? Why is it significant for India?
ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce): India's open protocol for digital commerce — like UPI for payments but for buying and selling goods/services online. Launched 2022 by DPIIT. How it works: Buyers and sellers don't need to be on the same app — any ONDC-compatible buyer app can discover sellers on any ONDC-compatible seller app (interoperability). Challenges the dominance of Amazon and Flipkart (closed ecosystems). Benefits: (1) Democratises e-commerce — small sellers, kirana stores can participate without being on a single platform; (2) Reduces commission rates for sellers; (3) Farmer-to-consumer direct sales; (4) Enables MSMEs to access e-commerce. Scale: 7+ million transactions/day by 2024; 100+ cities; food, grocery, fashion, electronics. International: EU studying India's ONDC model for preventing e-commerce monopolies. UPSC: Competition policy, digital regulation, MSME empowerment.
🎯 ONDC = open e-commerce protocol | Like UPI for digital commerce | Launched 2022 by DPIIT | Interoperability = any buyer app + any seller app | Challenges Amazon/Flipkart monopoly | 7 million+ transactions/day
38
DigitalGS3 Prelims
What is the Telecom Act 2023? How does it modernise India's telecom framework?
Telecommunications Act 2023: Replaced the century-old Indian Telegraph Act 1885, Indian Wireless Telegraphy Act 1933, and Telegraph Wires (Unlawful Possession) Act 1950. Key provisions: (1) Broad definition: 'Telecommunications services' now includes OTT (WhatsApp, Zoom, Netflix) — potential regulation; (2) Spectrum assignment: Government can assign specific spectrum for certain purposes (satellite internet); (3) National security: Government can intercept, suspend, or take over telecom services during emergencies; (4) Right of Way: Telecom infrastructure gets right of way on roads, railways, waterways — faster infrastructure deployment; (5) Biometric SIM: Mandatory biometric verification under Sanchar Saathi; (6) Universal Service Obligation (USO) Fund: Expanded for rural broadband and research. TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India): Statutory body under TRAI Act 1997; recommends spectrum policy; remains separate from licensing authority (DoT).
🎯 Telecom Act 2023 = replaced Indian Telegraph Act 1885 | OTT services may be regulated | Biometric SIM verification | Right of Way provisions | TRAI = statutory (1997) | Sanchar Saathi = fight SIM fraud
39
SpaceGS3
What is India's 5G rollout? What is Bharat 6G Vision?
5G in India: Launched October 2022 (Reliance Jio + Airtel); by 2024 — 750+ cities covered; India has one of world's fastest 5G rollouts. 5G features: Speed up to 10 Gbps; ultra-low latency (1ms); massive device connectivity (IoT). Applications: Industrial IoT, smart cities, telemedicine, autonomous vehicles, precision agriculture. India's 5G achievement: First country to develop indigenous 5G telecom stack — IIT Madras + C-DoT (Centre for Development of Telematics) developed 5G ORAN (Open Radio Access Network) — not dependent on foreign vendors (Huawei/Nokia). PM-WANI: Wi-Fi access network for rural India. Bharat 6G Vision (2023): India plans to be a leader in 6G technology (expected globally by 2030); Bharat 6G Alliance; focus on: terahertz spectrum, AI-native networks, integrated sensing. India aims to be 6G patent holder (India has 10% of global 5G patents). 6G Alliance: TRAI + DoT + industry + academia.
🎯 5G launched India Oct 2022 | 750+ cities by 2024 | India-developed 5G stack (IIT Madras + C-DoT) | ORAN = not dependent on Huawei/Nokia | Bharat 6G Vision 2023 | India = 10% global 5G patents | 6G by 2030 globally
40
DigitalGS3
What is cybersecurity in India's context? What are CERT-In and NCIIPC?
India's Cybersecurity Framework: India faces ~14 million cyberattacks daily (2023 data); 3rd most targeted country after USA and China. CERT-In (Indian Computer Emergency Response Team): Under MeitY; national agency for cybersecurity incident response; issues advisories; coordinates response to major cyberattacks. CERT-In Rules 2022 — mandatory reporting of cyber incidents within 6 hours (among strictest globally); requires VPN providers to maintain user logs for 5 years (controversial). NCIIPC (National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre): Under NTRO (National Technical Research Organisation); protects critical sectors — power, banking, telecom, nuclear, transport — from cyberattacks. National Cybersecurity Policy 2013 (under revision). Cyber Surakshit Bharat: Awareness programme for government officials. Digital India Mission: Cybersecurity as integral component. Challenges: Ransomware (AIIMS Delhi attack 2022); state-sponsored attacks; deepfakes; quantum computing threat to encryption.
🎯 CERT-In = cybersecurity incident response under MeitY | 6-hour mandatory reporting (2022 rules) | NCIIPC = protects critical infrastructure under NTRO | AIIMS Delhi ransomware 2022 = major attack | 14 million attacks/day in India
📡
Part E — Current Affairs in Science and Technology
GS3 Current · Q 41-50
41
CurrentGS3 Current
What are Large Language Models (LLMs)? What are India's concerns about AI governance?
Large Language Models (LLMs): AI systems trained on massive text datasets capable of generating human-like text, translation, coding, Q&A. Examples: ChatGPT (OpenAI — GPT-4), Claude (Anthropic), Gemini (Google), Llama (Meta). How they work: Transformer neural networks; trained on web-scale text; next-token prediction. India's AI concerns: (1) Bias: LLMs trained on English text — poor performance in Indian languages; cultural bias; (2) Misinformation: Deepfakes, AI-generated fake news during elections; (3) Job displacement: Automation of white-collar jobs (BPO, coding, content); (4) Data sovereignty: Indian data training foreign AI models; (5) Concentration of power: Few tech giants control AI infrastructure. India's response: India AI Mission (₹10,372 crore); BharatGen (Indian LLM); GPAI membership (2020); Advisory on AI intermediaries (MeitY 2023 — requires government permission before deploying AI in India).
🎯 LLM = AI trained on massive text | ChatGPT, Claude, Gemini, Llama = key LLMs | India concerns: bias + misinformation + jobs + data sovereignty | BharatGen = India's LLM | GPAI = India founding member | MeitY AI advisory 2023
42
CurrentGS3 Current
What is India's space economy target? What are the key components of India's space vision 2047?
India's Space Economy: Currently ~$8 billion (2023); target ₹1.5 lakh crore (~$44 billion) by 2047 — targeting 10% of global space economy (currently ~2%). Vision 2047 key pillars: (1) Gaganyaan Programme: Crewed spaceflight; Indian astronauts on ISS; Indian space station by 2035; (2) Moon: Chandrayaan-4 (sample return, 2028); crewed lunar mission by 2040; (3) Mars and Venus: Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (Mangalyaan-2); Venus Mission (Shukrayaan-1 planned 2025-26); (4) Commercial launches: Target global satellite launch market share; (5) Private sector: 2-3 Indian unicorn space companies by 2030 (Skyroot, Pixxel targets); (6) Space economy drivers: Earth observation data sales; satellite communication; space manufacturing; space tourism (future). IN-SPACe = regulatory enabler. NSIL = commercial arm.
🎯 India space economy = ₹1.5 lakh crore target by 2047 | Currently ~$8 billion | Gaganyaan → Indian space station by 2035 | Chandrayaan-4 sample return 2028 | Mars Orbiter 2 + Shukrayaan-1 planned | Private sector unicorns targeted
43
CurrentGS3 Current
What is synthetic biology? What is the significance of bacteria converting plastic to levodopa (April 2026)?
Synthetic Biology: Designing and constructing biological systems (organisms, pathways) that don't exist naturally or redesigning existing ones for useful purposes. Combines biology + engineering + computer science. Applications: Biofuels, pharmaceuticals, materials, biosensors, agriculture. Plastic to Levodopa (April 2026): Researchers engineered bacteria (modified E. coli) to convert PET plastic waste into levodopa — key drug for Parkinson's disease. Significance: (1) Addresses two global problems simultaneously — plastic pollution + affordable medicine; (2) PET = most common plastic (water bottles, synthetic fibres); (3) Levodopa = expensive; makes it affordable for developing nations; (4) Demonstrates circular economy potential of synthetic biology. UPSC relevance: Synthetic biology, plastic waste management (SUP ban 2022), pharmaceutical innovation, bioethics (contained vs open-release organisms). India's National Biotechnology Development Strategy supports synthetic biology.
🎯 Synthetic biology = designing biological systems for useful purposes | Plastic → levodopa: E. coli converts PET to Parkinson's drug | April 2026 breakthrough | Addresses plastic pollution + affordable medicine | India's Biotech Strategy supports it
44
CurrentGS3 Current
What is quantum computing and why does it pose a threat to current encryption?
Quantum Computing: Uses quantum mechanical phenomena (superposition, entanglement) to process information. Key concepts: Qubit (quantum bit — can be 0 AND 1 simultaneously via superposition); Entanglement (two qubits correlated regardless of distance); Interference (amplify correct solutions). Can solve certain problems exponentially faster than classical computers. Threat to encryption: Current RSA/ECC encryption relies on mathematical difficulty of factoring large numbers — classical computers can't crack it. A large quantum computer (1,000+ qubits) could use Shor's algorithm to factorise these numbers instantly — breaking all current internet security (banking, military communications, HTTPS). Response — Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC): NIST (USA) standardised 4 PQC algorithms in 2024 that are quantum-resistant. India's NQM developing quantum-safe protocols. QKD = unhackable alternative using physics laws.
🎯 Quantum computer = qubit (superposition) | Shor's algorithm = breaks RSA encryption | 1,000+ qubits needed to crack current encryption | Post-Quantum Cryptography = quantum-resistant algorithms | QKD = physics-based unhackable channel | NIST PQC standards 2024
45
CurrentGS3 Current
What is Gene Therapy and what are India's achievements in this area?
Gene Therapy: Treatment of diseases by introducing, altering, or deleting genes within cells. Types: (1) In Vivo: Gene editing done inside the patient's body; (2) Ex Vivo: Cells removed, edited in lab, reinfused (CAR-T is ex-vivo). Vectors: Viral vectors (AAV — Adeno-Associated Virus most common) or non-viral (lipid nanoparticles). Approved Gene Therapies: Casgevy (CRISPR — sickle cell, 2023); Zolgensma (spinal muscular atrophy — most expensive drug ever, ~$2 million per dose). India's Gene Therapy initiatives: (1) CDSCO regulatory framework for gene and cell therapy products; (2) DBT funds CRISPR research (sickle cell, thalassemia); (3) CMC Vellore: Gene therapy trials for haemophilia; (4) NexCAR19 (CAR-T = gene-modified T-cells) — India's biggest gene therapy achievement. India hosts 400+ ongoing clinical trials including gene therapy. Ethical concerns: Germline editing (heritable changes), consent, equity.
🎯 Gene therapy = introducing/altering genes to treat disease | CAR-T = ex-vivo gene therapy | NexCAR19 = India's biggest achievement | Casgevy = CRISPR gene therapy for sickle cell (2023) | CMC Vellore = haemophilia trials | CDSCO regulates
46
CurrentGS3 Current
What is ITER and India's role in nuclear fusion research?
ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor): World's largest nuclear fusion experiment, being built in Cadarache, France. Seven partners: India, EU, USA, Russia, China, Japan, South Korea. Goal: Demonstrate that fusion can produce net energy — 'artificial sun'. Fusion vs Fission: Fission = splitting heavy atoms (uranium) — current nuclear power; Fusion = joining light atoms (deuterium + tritium — hydrogen isotopes) — like the Sun; produces 4x more energy per kg than fission; no long-lived radioactive waste; fuel from seawater (inexhaustible). India's ITER contributions: Cryostat (world's largest vacuum vessel, made by ITER India = IPR-Gandhinagar + L&T); superconducting magnet systems; first wall panels; cryogenic systems. India contributes 9.1% of ITER total. ITER milestones: First plasma expected 2025-27; full fusion power by 2035+. If successful — unlimited clean energy. India's IPR (Institute for Plasma Research, Gandhinagar) leads.
🎯 ITER = 7 partners including India | Cadarache, France | India contributes cryostat + magnets (9.1% share) | Fusion = deuterium + tritium | 4x energy vs fission | No long-lived waste | First plasma 2025-27 | IPR Gandhinagar = India lead
47
CurrentGS3
What are Geographical Indications (GIs)? What are India's most famous GIs?
Geographical Indication (GI): A sign/label indicating a product originates from a specific geographical area and has qualities, reputation, or characteristics attributable to that place. Governed by: TRIPS Agreement (WTO) and Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999. GI Registry: Chennai. Nodal Ministry: DPIIT (Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade). India's famous GIs (600+ registered): Darjeeling Tea (India's first GI, 2004); Kanchipuram Silk; Tirupati Ladoo; Basmati Rice; Kashmir Saffron; Alphonso Mango (Ratnagiri); Mysore Silk; Kolkata Rosogolla; Banaras Brocade; Pashmina Shawl; Sikkimese Cardamom. Benefits: Prevents misuse; premium pricing for producers; protects traditional knowledge; promotes rural livelihoods. Biopiracy link: TKDL prevents false patents on Indian products that should be GI-protected.
🎯 GI = product from specific area with qualities linked to origin | India's first GI = Darjeeling Tea (2004) | 600+ GIs registered | GI Registry = Chennai | DPIIT nodal | TRIPS Agreement (WTO) governs | Prevents misuse + premium pricing
48
CurrentGS3
What is the role of DRDO in India's defence technology ecosystem?
DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation): India's premier defence R&D agency under Ministry of Defence. 50+ laboratories; 5,000+ scientists; 30,000+ employees. Key achievements: (1) Agni missile series; (2) Tejas LCA (Light Combat Aircraft) — Mark 1A inducted; Mark 2 under development; (3) AMCA (Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft) — 5th generation stealth fighter; (4) QRSAM (Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missile); (5) Astra BVR air-to-air missile; (6) Pinaka multi-barrel rocket launcher; (7) Kaveri engine (aero-engine for Tejas); (8) DRDO anti-drone systems; (9) HMX explosive; (10) Rustom-2 MALE UAV. Challenges: Time and cost overruns (Arjun MK2 delays); import dependence still 60%+ for advanced systems; talent attrition to private sector. Reforms: DRDO Technology Development Fund (TDF) — partners with private sector; iDEX collaboration; private defence corridors.
🎯 DRDO = 50+ labs + 5,000 scientists | Tejas LCA (inducted) | AMCA = 5th gen stealth (under development) | QRSAM + Astra = air defence and missiles | Pinaka = rocket system | Rustom-2 = MALE UAV | 60%+ defence still imported
49
ScienceGS3
What is India's contribution to international science through CERN and other organisations?
CERN (Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire): World's largest particle physics laboratory, Geneva. Home of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) — 27 km circular tunnel; smashes protons at near-light speed to study fundamental particles. Higgs Boson discovered (2012): LHC confirmed Higgs Boson ('God Particle') — Peter Higgs and François Englert won Nobel 2013. India-CERN: India is an Associate Member of CERN (since 2017); Indian scientists contributed to LHC construction (magnets, computing grid); 500+ Indian scientists participate in CERN experiments (ALICE, CMS). Other global science India participates in: (1) LIGO India (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory) — approved 2023, Hingoli (Maharashtra) — detecting gravitational waves; (2) Square Kilometre Array (SKA) — world's largest radio telescope — India partner; (3) Thirty Metre Telescope (TMT) — Hawaii — India partner; (4) ITER (fusion — as discussed).
🎯 CERN = world's largest particle physics lab | LHC discovered Higgs Boson (2012) | India = CERN Associate Member (2017) | 500+ Indian scientists at CERN | LIGO India = Hingoli, Maharashtra | SKA + TMT = India partners
50
ScienceGS3
What are key intellectual property rights (IPR) concepts important for UPSC Science & Technology?
Key IPR concepts for UPSC: (1) Patent: Exclusive right for invention for 20 years; Patents Act 1970 (amended); CGPDTM (Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks) — Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi offices. Section 3(d) — prevents 'evergreening' (extending patent by trivial modifications — Novartis Glivec case 2013). (2) Compulsory Licensing: Government can authorise a 3rd party to produce a patented product without patentee's consent — used for public health emergencies (Bayer Nexavar compulsory licence 2012 — cancer drug made affordable). (3) National IPR Policy 2016: 'Creative India; Innovative India' slogan; nodal department = DPIIT; aim = leverage IPR for economic growth. (4) Evergreening: Pharmaceutical companies file new patents on modified forms of existing drugs to extend monopoly — India's Section 3(d) is model provision globally. (5) TKDL: Protects Indian traditional knowledge from biopiracy patents.
🎯 Patent = 20 years exclusive right | Section 3(d) = prevents evergreening | Compulsory Licensing = Bayer Nexavar 2012 | National IPR Policy 2016 = DPIIT | TKDL = prevents biopiracy | CGPDTM = patent office | Novartis Glivec case 2013 = Section 3(d) upheld
Mains Q — 15 Marks GS Paper 3
"India's space programme has transformed from a purely scientific endeavour into a strategic, commercial, and diplomatic asset. Critically examine." (250 words)
Introduction
India's ISRO, established in 1969 by Dr Vikram Sarabhai, began with modest ambitions — a sounding rocket launched from a church in Thumba. Six decades later, it has evolved into a multidimensional programme encompassing science, national security, commercial enterprise, and strategic diplomacy.
Scientific Achievements
Chandrayaan-3 (2023): 1st country to land on lunar south pole; water ice evidence; National Space Day (23 Aug). Aditya-L1: India's first solar observatory at L1; monitoring Solar Maximum. MOM (2014): First-ever successful Mars mission in first attempt; cheapest Mars mission. SpaDeX (2025): 4th docking nation — enables future space station.
Strategic Asset
NAVIC: India's independent navigation system — GPS sovereignty. RISAT/Cartosat: Military-grade surveillance satellites — border monitoring; 2019 Balakot aftermath. Mission Shakti ASAT (2019): Space warfare deterrence — 4th ASAT nation. NISAR: Joint NASA-ISRO satellite — strategic partnership. Gaganyaan: Human spaceflight = technological prestige and deterrence capability.
Commercial and Diplomatic Dimensions
Commercial launches: OneWeb, Amazon Kuiper contracts via NSIL — revenue generation. Private sector: Skyroot, Agnikul, Pixxel — India Stack for space. Target: ₹1.5 lakh crore space economy by 2047. Diplomacy: Artemis Accords (27th signatory); Quad Space Working Group; South Asia Satellite (gift to neighbours); ISA co-founded with France. Soft power: Chandrayaan-3 = global prestige; India invited to G-7 space discussions.
Conclusion
India's space programme exemplifies how a developing nation can leverage science for comprehensive national power. The challenge ahead is sustaining investment (India's space budget ~$2.5 billion vs NASA's $25 billion), accelerating private sector growth, and converting space achievements into economic and strategic dividends at scale.
Mains Q2 — 10 Marks GS Paper 3
"What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help uplift the poorer sections of society?" (250 words)
Key Achievements
NexCAR19: Affordable CAR-T therapy (₹30-40L vs ₹3-4 crore) — democratises cancer treatment. Covaxin: Bharat Biotech's indigenous COVID vaccine — made in India, affordable for Global South. Bt Cotton: 90% of India's cotton uses Bt — transformed India from cotton importer to world's largest producer; doubled farmer income. IFFCO Nano Urea: 500ml replaces 50kg conventional urea — reduces cost, environment impact. Genome India Project: Enables precision medicine for Indian populations — identifies disease variants specific to India.
Uplifting Poorer Sections
Farmers: Bt Cotton + Nano Urea + GM crops → higher yield, lower input cost. Healthcare access: Affordable biosimilars (DRL, Biocon) for diabetes, cancer; NexCAR19 vs imported therapy. Malnutrition: Biofortified crops (Golden Rice — Vitamin A, Iron-rich wheat). Traditional knowledge: TKDL + fair ABS (Nagoya Protocol) → royalties to local communities. Employment: India's bioeconomy = $150 billion (target $300 billion by 2030) — 1 million+ jobs. Government: DBT's Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC) — supports startups addressing social challenges.
📋
Quick Revision Table — Science and Technology 2026
15 Must-Know Facts for Last-Minute Revision
| Topic | Key Fact | Critical Detail | Paper |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chandrayaan-3 | 23 August 2023 | Lunar south pole | 1st country at south pole | 4th lunar soft landing | Pragyan found sulphur | National Space Day = 23 Aug | Pre+GS3 |
| SpaDeX | Jan 2025 | India = 4th docking nation | SDX01 Chaser + SDX02 Target | Critical for Gaganyaan + BAS + Chandrayaan-4 | IN-SPACe = private regulator | Pre+GS3 |
| Gaganyaan | 3 crew, 400km orbit, 3 days | Vyomanauts = 4 | Uncrewed 2026 → crewed ~2027 | Shubhanshu Shukla → ISS via Axiom Ax-4 | BAS (space station) by 2035 | Pre+GS3 |
| PFBR | 6 April 2026 | Kalpakkam | Stage 2 nuclear | 500 MWe sodium-cooled | BHAVINI | India = 2nd country (after Russia) to operate FBR commercially | Pre+GS3 |
| National Quantum Mission | ₹6,003 crore (2023-2031) | 3 domains | Quantum Computing + QKD + Sensing | 1,000 km QKD milestone 2026 | QNu Labs key startup | Pre+GS3 |
| NexCAR19 (CAR-T) | India's first CAR-T therapy | CDSCO approved Oct 2023 | IIT Bombay + Tata Memorial | ₹30-40L vs ₹3-4 crore (imported) | Targets CD19 B-cell cancers | ImmunoACT manufactures | Pre+GS3 |
| CRISPR-Cas9 | Nobel 2020 (Doudna + Charpentier) | Molecular scissors | Casgevy = first CRISPR therapy (sickle cell, 2023) | GEAC regulates GM in India | Pre+GS3 |
| India Semiconductor Mission | ₹76,000 crore | Tata-PSMC in Dholera | Micron in Sanand | Dholera = 28nm chip fab (~2026) | Micron ATMP opened 2024 | India has 20% world chip design engineers | Pre+GS3 |
| India AI Mission | ₹10,372 crore | 7 pillars | 10,000 GPUs | BharatGen = India's first govt LLM | ANRF SARAL = AI for research | GPAI founding member (2020) | GS3 |
| Green Hydrogen Mission | ₹19,744 crore | 5 MMT by 2030 | Green = electrolysis using renewables | Zero emissions | India export markets = Japan + South Korea + EU | Pre+GS3 |
| Mission Shakti ASAT | 27 March 2019 | LEO ~300 km | 4th ASAT nation (USA, Russia, China, India) | Hit-to-kill kinetic | Low altitude = rapid debris decay | Pre |
| IFFCO Nano Urea | World's first nano urea liquid (2021) | 500ml = 50kg conventional urea | Exported to 30+ countries | Nanotechnology in agriculture | Pre |
| Genome India Project | 10,000 Indian genomes | DBT + IISc | India = 4,700+ population groups | Precision medicine | IndiGen database | Genomic data = privacy concern | GS3 |
| TKDL | 3.4 million formulations | CSIR + AYUSH | 5 languages | Prevents biopiracy | Turmeric + Neem + Basmati cases won | Nagoya Protocol = benefit sharing | Pre+GS3 |
| ITER | 7 partners including India | Cadarache, France | India contributes cryostat + magnets (9.1%) | Fusion = 4x energy vs fission | IPR Gandhinagar leads India's ITER | GS3 |
Best Books for Science and Technology
Ravi P. Agrahari "Science and Technology for UPSC" + The Hindu Science Page + PIB + NCERT 9-12
Ravi P. Agrahari is the gold standard for UPSC S&T. Supplement with The Hindu Science page daily and PIB for current developments. Available on Amazon India.
Buy on Amazon India →
Get Weekly S&T Notes Free 🔬
ISRO missions, new biotech approvals, defence systems, AI developments — every week, free.
Join 38,000+ UPSC and MPSC aspirants subscribed.
Comments
Post a Comment