50 Current Affairs 2025–26 Q&A — UPSC MPSC 2026 Complete Notes
50 Current Affairs 2025–26 Q&A
Complete Notes for UPSC & MPSC
Economy · Polity & Governance · International Relations · Science & Technology · Environment · Defence & Security · Social Issues — 50 Q&As covering the most important events of 2025–26 with Mains templates and revision table!
The Union Budget 2025–26 was presented by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman on February 1, 2025 — her 8th consecutive budget (record in India). Theme: "Viksit Bharat" (Developed India). Key highlights: Total expenditure: ₹50.65 lakh crore (up 7.4% from FY25); Capital expenditure: ₹11.21 lakh crore — maintained high capex focus for infrastructure; Fiscal Deficit target: 4.4% of GDP for FY26 (down from 5.1% in FY24; target 4.5% met in FY25); GDP growth assumed: 10.1% nominal; Tax revenue: ₹42.7 lakh crore. Income Tax relief: Zero tax up to ₹12 lakh annual income (revised new tax regime); new tax slabs: 0% (0–4L), 5% (4–8L), 10% (8–12L), 15% (12–16L), 20% (16–20L), 25% (20–24L), 30% (above 24L); Agriculture: PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana (100 low-productivity districts); KCC limit raised to ₹5 lakh; Urea plant revived; Manufacturing: PLI schemes continued; footwear, toys, electronics; National Manufacturing Mission; Infrastructure: ₹10 lakh crore for railways; 3 corridors; 50 new airports; UDAN expanded; Energy: PM Surya Ghar Yojana expanded (50 lakh more households); Nuclear Energy Mission (5 indigenous small modular reactors — SMRs); Startup: Fund of Funds ₹10,000 crore; GIFT City incentives expanded; Education: 50,000 Atal Tinkering Labs; AI in schools; PM Research Fellowship; Social: Sickle Cell Disease elimination mission; Gig workers — identity cards + social security; Jal Jeevan Mission extended to 2028.
On April 2, 2025 — dubbed "Liberation Day" — US President Donald Trump announced sweeping tariffs on imports, launching the most significant shift in US trade policy since the 1930s. Key measures: Universal 10% baseline tariff on all imports to USA; Country-specific "reciprocal" tariffs based on trade deficits + perceived non-tariff barriers: India = 26%; China = 145% (combined with existing); EU = 20%; Vietnam = 46%; Japan = 24%; Bangladesh = 37%; 90-day pause announced April 9 (except China — full tariffs maintained) for countries to negotiate bilateral trade deals; baseline 10% applies during pause. Rationale: Trump argued that trading partners maintain unfair trade barriers against US goods; "reciprocity" principle — USA's tariff = approximately half the tariff India charges on US goods; targeted sectors: pharmaceuticals, steel, aluminium, electronics. Impact on India: India's goods exports to USA ~$80B/year; most exposed sectors: pharmaceuticals (~$8B), gems + jewellery (~$10B), engineering goods, textiles, chemicals; IT services NOT affected (tariffs on goods only — India's $200B+ IT services export to USA untouched); Silver lining — China+1: India's 26% tariff vs China's 145% makes India dramatically more competitive for companies exiting China supply chains; India-US Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA): Negotiations ongoing — India offering market access in certain sectors; USA wants agricultural access + lower industrial tariffs; 90-day window = opportunity; WTO concerns: India raised concerns at WTO about tariff violations.
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under new Governor Sanjay Malhotra (who succeeded Shaktikanta Das in December 2024) navigated a complex monetary environment in 2024–25. New RBI Governor: Sanjay Malhotra — IAS officer (1990 batch, Rajasthan cadre); former Revenue Secretary, Ministry of Finance; appointed November 2024 for 3-year term; took charge December 11, 2024. Key policy decisions 2024–25: Rate cuts in 2025: RBI cut repo rate by 25 basis points in February 2025 MPC meeting (first cut in nearly 5 years — from 6.5% to 6.25%) and again in April 2025 MPC (to 6.0%) — responding to cooling inflation + slowing growth; Inflation: CPI inflation moderated to ~4.5% by early 2025 (from 6%+ high in late 2024 driven by food inflation — especially vegetables); RBI's target = 4% with 2% band (2%–6%); Growth: GDP growth slowed to 6.4% in FY25 (RBI revised down from 7.2% earlier); FY26 projection = 6.5–6.7%; DPDP Act: RBI issued guidelines for digital payment fraud prevention aligned with DPDP 2023; UPI new features: UPI One World (for foreign tourists); UPI credit line (overdraft facility); Forex reserves: India's forex reserves = $680B+ (as of early 2026) — 4th largest globally. SFB to Universal Bank conversions: RBI granted in-principle approval to some Small Finance Banks to convert to universal banks. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC): 6 members — 3 RBI (Governor + 2 Deputy Governors) + 3 external members; decisions by majority vote; meets every 2 months.
India's Unified Payments Interface (UPI) — launched 2016 by NPCI (National Payments Corporation of India) — continues to set global records as the world's most used real-time digital payment system. Key 2025 milestones: UPI crossed 17 billion transactions per month (early 2025) — up from 10B in early 2023; ₹24 lakh crore+ monthly value (March 2025); total UPI transactions FY2025 = ~172 billion; UPI market share: UPI = 80%+ of digital retail transactions in India; International expansion: UPI now live in 8+ countries — UAE, Singapore, Bahrain, France, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Bhutan; G20 DPI Framework: India's UPI highlighted as global model at G20 2023; several countries studying UPI architecture; UPI One World: Allows foreign tourists in India to use UPI without an Indian bank account (pre-loaded wallet); launched at G20 2023; expanded 2024–25; UPI Credit Line: Banks can offer pre-sanctioned credit lines via UPI — instant overdraft at point of sale; RuPay international expansion: RuPay cards accepted in 200+ countries (Visa/Mastercard network); RuPay-JCB tie-up (Japan); ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce): India's government-backed open e-commerce network (alternative to Amazon/Flipkart monopoly) — 7+ lakh sellers; growing; Account Aggregator Framework: Enables consent-based financial data sharing — improving credit access for MSMEs + individuals; CBDC (Digital Rupee — e₹): Retail + wholesale pilots ongoing; 1 lakh+ transactions by early 2025 — slow adoption; PM Jan Dhan Yojana accounts = 54 crore+ (largest financial inclusion drive).
Critical minerals are minerals essential for clean energy, defence, and digital technologies — whose supply chains are concentrated in a few countries, creating strategic vulnerability. India's critical minerals landscape: Lithium discovery in J&K (2023): Geological Survey of India (GSI) confirmed India's first significant lithium reserves in Reasi district, J&K (5.9 million tonnes — one of world's largest deposits); also in Rajasthan + Chhattisgarh; lithium = essential for EV batteries, mobile phones, energy storage; India currently imports almost all lithium; Mines and Minerals Act amendment (2023): 6 critical minerals (lithium, cobalt, nickel, niobium, REEs — rare earth elements, titanium) removed from "atomic minerals" list and opened to private sector exploration; Critical Minerals Mission 2023: Ministry of Mines launched; domestic exploration + global supply chain diversification. KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd): Govt JV (NALCO + HCL + MECL) — acquires critical mineral assets abroad; MoU for lithium in Argentina (Kachi block); cobalt + copper in Australia; nickel in Philippines; Battery swap + domestic manufacturing: PLI for advanced chemistry cells (ACC) = ₹18,100 crore — domestic battery manufacturing (Ola, Reliance, Rajesh Exports); REE (Rare Earth Elements): India has significant REE deposits (6th largest globally in beach sand minerals — monazite in Kerala/TN); IREL (India Rare Earths Ltd) — PSU; Odisha REE park planned; India-USA critical minerals MOU; India-Australia critical minerals partnership; India-Canada (Saskatchewan lithium). Significance for Viksit Bharat: India's EV targets + green hydrogen + solar + defence require guaranteed critical mineral supply.
India's trade diplomacy has been particularly active in 2024–25, advancing multiple bilateral and regional trade deals. India-EFTA TEPA (2024): Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement signed March 10, 2024 with EFTA (European Free Trade Association — Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein) — India's first trade deal with a developed-country bloc; EFTA committed to $100 billion FDI in India over 15 years + 1 million direct jobs; first time a trade deal has a binding FDI commitment (innovative); India gained: better market access for services (IT, healthcare) + pharmaceuticals; EFTA gained: lower tariffs on goods (industrial machinery, watches, chemicals); India-UK FTA (still negotiating): Negotiations since January 2022; progress but unresolved issues — Scotch whisky tariff (UK demands significant cuts from India's 150% tariff); Indian students' visa access; data localisation; automotive sector (UK car tariffs); Modi-Starmer meetings pushed for early conclusion; India-EU FTA: Restarted 2022; EU-India Technology + Trade Council (TTC) launched 2023; CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism from 2026) creates tension; India-Canada CETA: Frozen since Sept 2023 (Nijjar killing row — Canada expelled Indian diplomat; India expelled Canadian diplomat); slowly thawing (2025 new Canadian PM Mark Carney — reset talks); India-ASEAN FTA review: India reviewing 2010 goods FTA due to trade deficit; demanding revision + rules of origin tightening; India-GCC FTA: Gulf Cooperation Council (Saudi, UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Oman) — negotiations ongoing (UAE already has CEPA 2022); India-Oman CEPA: Under finalisation (2025).
India's MSME (Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises) sector — employing ~11 crore people; 30% of GDP; 48% of exports — received significant policy attention in 2024–25. MSME redefinition (revised 2020): Micro: investment ≤₹1 crore + turnover ≤₹5 crore; Small: ≤₹10 crore + ≤₹50 crore; Medium: ≤₹50 crore + ≤₹250 crore (Budget 2025–26 enhanced these limits further). Budget 2025–26 MSME measures: Credit Guarantee Fund (CGTMSE) expanded — enhanced coverage; MSME credit — 5-year interest subvention scheme proposed; Formalization drive: Udyam Registration Portal — 4.5 crore+ MSMEs registered; GeM (Government e-Marketplace): ₹5 lakh crore+ procurement — MSMEs = major beneficiaries; mandatory 25% procurement from MSMEs for CPSEs. Startup ecosystem 2024–25: India = 3rd largest startup ecosystem globally (after USA + China); 1,40,000+ DPIIT-recognised startups; 116 unicorns (startups valued $1B+); Krutrim (Ola's AI) = India's first AI unicorn (2024); Startup India 2.0 — enhanced fund of funds (₹10,000 crore Budget 2025); Deep Tech mission — ₹1,000 crore for space, biotech, quantum, defence startups; 75 AI innovation centres in tier-2 cities; iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence) — defence startup scheme (₹500 crore); SIDBI Startup Fund; NIF (National Innovation Foundation). Key 2024 startup events: Meesho, Groww, Zepto (quick commerce) growing rapidly; PhysicsWallah = edtech unicorn; India's agritech, healthtech, and fintech ecosystems expanding.
India's banking sector witnessed several significant developments in 2024–25. Bank mergers and consolidation: Post the mega mergers of 2019–20 (10 PSBs merged into 4), India now has 12 Public Sector Banks; further consolidation discussed; Bank credit growth: Credit grew at 14–16% in FY25 (robust); retail + MSME lending growing faster; NPA (Non-Performing Assets): Gross NPA ratio fell to 2.6% (September 2024) — lowest in 12 years (from peak of 11.5% in 2018); significant improvement via IBC (Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code) resolutions + write-offs + improved recoveries; IBC developments: IBC 2016 — key milestone: Bhushan Steel (Tata Steel), Essar Steel (ArcelorMittal), Jet Airways (Jalan-Kalrock) key resolutions; NCLT + NCLAT handling cases; SFB (Small Finance Banks): Several SFBs seeking universal bank licences (RBI opened window 2023); Jana SFB + Ujjivan SFB considered; Payments banks: Paytm Payments Bank crisis (February 2024) — RBI cancelled Paytm Payments Bank's licence (violations of KYC + compliance norms); Paytm forced to migrate users; SEBI (Securities Exchange Board of India): New SEBI Chairperson — Tuhin Kanta Pandey (replaced Madhabi Puri Buch; Pandey = DFS Secretary previously; took charge March 2025); SEBI tightened F&O (Futures & Options) trading rules (October 2024) — 7 measures to reduce retail investor speculation; RBI's FLDG guidelines (First Loss Default Guarantee) for fintech co-lending; PM Jan Dhan = 54 crore+ accounts.
India's IndiaAI Mission — approved by Cabinet in March 2024 with a budget of ₹10,371 crore (2024–29) — is India's comprehensive national AI programme aiming to make India a global AI powerhouse. 7 pillars: (1) Compute (10,000+ GPUs); (2) Innovation Centre (IAIC — indigenous LLMs + BharatGen); (3) Datasets Platform; (4) Application Development; (5) Future Skills (1 lakh professionals); (6) Startup Financing (₹600 crore); (7) Safe + Trusted AI. Key 2024–25 AI developments: BharatGen: India's indigenous foundational AI model (IAIC developing — in Indian languages); Krutrim (Ola Cabs' Bhavish Aggarwal): India's first AI unicorn (2024) — Indic language LLM; valued $1B+; AI governance: India's "soft-touch" approach (no AI Act like EU 2024); MeitY advisory on labelling AI-generated content; IT Rules 2023 = deepfakes takedown within 24 hours; EU AI Act (August 2024): World's first comprehensive AI law — risk-based (unacceptable + high + limited + minimal risk categories); bans social scoring by government, real-time mass surveillance; high-risk AI needs conformity assessment; India studying EU model; Bletchley AI Safety Summit (Nov 2023): India participated; signed Bletchley Declaration (AI safety); Seoul AI Summit (May 2024) — India signed again; San Francisco (Nov 2024) — ongoing AI safety dialogue; AI + elections: 2024 Indian general elections — widespread deepfakes (PM Modi's AI voice clone circulated), AI-generated campaign content; ECI struggled with regulation; Nobel Prizes 2024 — AI connection: Physics Nobel = Hopfield + Hinton (neural networks); Chemistry Nobel = AlphaFold2 (Hassabis + Jumper).
India's infrastructure push under PM Gati Shakti (PM's Master Plan for Multi-modal Connectivity) continued with several milestones in 2024–25. Railways: Vande Bharat Express — 100+ Vande Bharat trains operational across India by 2025; newer Vande Bharat Sleeper (for overnight journeys) launched; Vande Metro introduced (for shorter intercity routes); Bullet Train (Mumbai-Ahmedabad MAHSR): Surat-Bilimora elevated viaduct completed; work progressing (target completion pushed to 2028); Kavach (Anti-Collision System): Accelerated deployment post-Balasore train accident (June 2023 — 292 deaths); target: cover entire Indian network; currently installed on 1,500+ km; Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs): Eastern DFC (Ludhiana-Sonnagar) + Western DFC (Rewari-JNPT) substantially operational; freight trains running; decongesting passenger network; Airports: 148+ operational airports (2025) — up from 74 in 2014; UDAN regional connectivity scheme — 500+ new routes; Navi Mumbai International Airport (NMIA) nearing completion; Noida International Airport (Jewar) under construction; Ayodhya Airport inaugurated (Dec 2023); Roads: National Highway construction = 12,000+ km/year (record pace); 14,000+ km greenfield highways under construction; Ports: Sagarmala scheme — major port modernisation; PM Gati Shakti: Integrated planning across 16 ministries; ₹1 lakh crore capex for connectivity annually.
India's three new criminal laws — Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), and Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA) — came into force on July 1, 2024, replacing the colonial-era IPC (1860), CrPC (1898/1973), and Indian Evidence Act (1872). Implementation in 2024–25: First FIR under BNS: Filed July 1, 2024 in Madhya Pradesh (snatching case — Section 304 BNS); Police training: National Police Academy, state police academies — rapid training of 25 lakh+ police personnel across India on new provisions; E-summons: Electronic summons via email/WhatsApp now legal (BNSS) — courts using digital summons; Zero FIR: Can file FIR at any police station regardless of jurisdiction — being implemented; Organised crime under BNS: New Section — being invoked; Time-bound trials: 45-day judgment after arguments — courts struggling to comply (backlog of 5 crore+ pending cases); CCTV mandatory: At crime scenes + police stations — implementation challenge (infrastructure); Key controversies: Sedition removed (Section 124A IPC) but replaced by Section 152 BNS (acts threatening sovereignty, unity, integrity) — critics say even broader; community service as punishment for minor crimes (first time in Indian law); Bar Council + Supreme Court: Bar associations raised concerns about implementation pace; Supreme Court suo motu monitoring; Forensic evidence: BNSS mandates forensic team visit to serious crime scenes — India lacks sufficient forensic labs and trained staff (challenge).
The Supreme Court of India delivered several landmark judgments in 2024–25: Electoral Bonds Judgment (February 15, 2024): 5-judge Constitution Bench unanimously struck down the Electoral Bonds Scheme (EBS) — introduced 2018 as anonymous political funding mechanism; held EBS violates voters' right to information (Art 19(1)(a)); ordered SBI to submit all bond details to Election Commission; data published showed ₹16,518 crore bonds sold (BJP received most); scheme intended to eliminate black money in political funding — SC held it failed to do so transparently; Judicial Appointments (Collegium vs NJAC): SC reiterated collegium primacy; 4th and 5th judges appointed to SC — diverse choices; Sub-classification of SC/ST reservations (August 2024): 7-judge bench (6:1 majority) held that states can sub-classify within SC/ST reservations to prioritise the most backward — overruled E.V. Chinnaiah (2004); states like Punjab can give preference to Valmikis, Mazhabi Sikhs within SC quota; Property Rights of Religious Minorities (October 2024): SC upheld protection of religious minority educational institutions' property rights; Waqf Amendment Act (challenged): Parliament passed Waqf Amendment Act 2025 — Muslim organisations challenged before SC; SC gave interim stay on some provisions; hearing ongoing; Gender justice — Marriage equality: SC (October 2023 — 5-judge bench; 3:2) held it cannot legalise same-sex marriage (Parliament's domain); but ordered government to form committee; government formed — committee recommendations awaited; POCSO + juvenile justice: Several SC orders strengthening child protection; New CJI (Chief Justice of India): Justice Sanjiv Khanna became 51st CJI (November 11, 2024 — replacing DY Chandrachud); Justice BR Gavai became 52nd CJI (May 14, 2025).
India's 18th Lok Sabha General Elections (April–June 2024) — world's largest democratic exercise — produced a significant political outcome. Voter turnout: ~66.3% (65+ crore voters voted); conducted in 7 phases (April 19 – June 1); results declared June 4, 2024. Key results: NDA (BJP-led National Democratic Alliance) won 293 seats (BJP = 240 seats alone — down from 303 in 2019 and 282 in 2014); INDIA alliance (Opposition) — 234 seats (Congress = 99 seats — major improvement from 52 in 2019); NDA fell short of BJP's sole majority (272 needed); PM Narendra Modi sworn in for 3rd consecutive term (June 9, 2024) — only 2nd PM after Nehru to do so; government formed with NDA coalition partners (TDP = 16 seats; JDU = 12 seats — both critical for majority); Key losers: BJP lost Uttar Pradesh badly (won 33 of 80 vs 62 in 2019); Rajasthan, Haryana swings; Key winners: Congress won Rae Bareli (Rahul Gandhi) + Wayanad (Priyanka Gandhi — her maiden win in Wayanad by-election after Rahul vacated); Akhilesh Yadav's SP = 37 seats (UP comeback); Women MPs: 74 elected — 13.6% (low despite Women's Reservation Act 2023 — Act applies to delimited seats post-Census, not this election); New Constitution given to MPs: Opposition staged walkout; Electoral reforms: ECI used AI for deepfake detection (limited success); VVPAT review petitions dismissed by SC. State elections 2024: BJP won Haryana (October 2024 — surprise win); Jharkhand = JMM-Congress coalition; Maharashtra = Mahayuti (BJP-SS Shinde-NCP Ajit) won (November 2024 — decisive win); Delhi = BJP won (February 2025 — ended AAP's decade).
Waqf (Amendment) Act 2025: Parliament passed significant amendments to the Waqf Act 1995 — amending management of Muslim charitable endowments (Waqf properties); Key changes: Non-Muslims now allowed on Waqf boards; survey + verification of Waqf properties through district collector (not solely through Waqf boards); inclusion of Shia, Bohra, Ahmadiyya communities; Waqf Tribunal to have non-Muslim member; Controversy: Muslim organisations + INDIA alliance said Act undermines Muslim autonomy over religious properties; challenged in SC; SC gave interim stay on some provisions (including immediate implementation of District Collector survey) — hearing ongoing. Other major legislation 2024–25: Finance Act 2024 (taxation changes — LTCG on equity raised to 12.5% from 10%; STCG raised to 20% from 15%; indexation benefit on property removed — later partially restored after protests); Disaster Management Amendment Act 2024; BOIPA (Broadcasting Services Regulation Bill): Controversial — OTT + digital news regulation; withdrawn after protests; TRAI Amendment 2024: Reduced TRAI Chairman's term to 2 years (from 5); raised retirement age; controversy over weakening telecom regulator independence; One Nation One Election Bill: Introduced Dec 2024 (Joint Parliamentary Committee formed to study); proposal for simultaneous LS + State assembly elections; Constitution Amendment required; opposition resistance; Digital Personal Data Protection Rules 2025: MeitY published draft rules under DPDP Act 2023 for public consultation; Women's Reservation Act (2023 — 33% seats in LS + State assemblies for women) — operationalisation awaiting delimitation post-Census.
Bharat Ratna 2024 (announced February 2024 — record year — 5 recipients): PV Narasimha Rao (posthumous — former PM; architect of 1991 economic reforms); MS Swaminathan (posthumous — "Father of Green Revolution in India"); Charan Singh (posthumous — former PM + farmers' champion; UP peasant leader); LK Advani (former BJP president + Deputy PM; born 1927; first post awarded to him alive among this batch); Karpoori Thakur (posthumous — Bihar CM; OBC champion; first major OBC reservation implementer in Bihar). Key appointments 2024–25: RBI Governor: Sanjay Malhotra (December 2024); CJI: Sanjiv Khanna (Nov 2024) → BR Gavai (May 2025); NSA: Ajit Doval (reappointed); CAG: KR Jibu Prasad (new CAG); Election Commission: Gyanesh Kumar + Sukhbir Singh Sandhu = new Election Commissioners (2024 — controversy: new appointment process under CEC + PM + Opposition Leader + Home Minister — SC objected; SC earlier ordered CM + PM + one SC judge to appoint; Parliament enacted new law); SEBI Chair: Tuhin Kanta Pandey (March 2025); New Vice-President: Jagdeep Dhankhar continues (since Aug 2022); Army Chief: General Upendra Dwivedi (July 2024 — succeeding General Manoj Pande); Navy Chief: Admiral Dinesh Kumar Tripathi (April 2024); Air Chief: Air Chief Marshal Amar Preet Singh (September 2024). Padma Awards 2025: 139 recipients; include international recipients from US, UK, Bhutan; Nobel 2024 (India connections): No Indian winner; Economics Nobel = Acemoglu + Johnson + Robinson (institutions + prosperity).
On April 22, 2025, a group of terrorists opened fire on tourists in the Baisaran meadow near Pahalgam, Jammu & Kashmir — killing 26 tourists (25 Indian civilians + 1 Nepali national; mostly from West Bengal, Gujarat, Maharashtra) and injuring several others. It was the deadliest terror attack in J&K since 2000. The Resistance Front (TRF) — a shadow group of Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) — initially claimed responsibility. Attack details: Terrorists targeted tourists who were enjoying horse rides and photography in the scenic meadow; victims were asked their religion before being shot (reports of targeting based on religious identity); security lapse despite J&K being a high-security zone. India's immediate diplomatic responses: Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) suspended: India formally notified Pakistan of suspension of the 1960 IWT (India called it "force majeure" — citing Pakistan's continued support for terrorism); Attari-Wagah border closed; Pakistani diplomats expelled (Chargé d'Affaires summoned; visas of Pakistani nationals cancelled; SAARC visa exemption suspended for Pakistan); Pakistan's airspace banned for Indian carriers; Trade halted; Cricket ties frozen. Pakistan's response: Denied involvement; called it a "false flag"; retaliated by closing Wagah border + airspace for Indian aircraft. Military tensions: Operation Sindoor (early May 2025 — India launched targeted strikes on terror infrastructure in Pakistan + PoK; details classified; Pakistan military responded); significant escalation — diplomatic back-channels active for de-escalation. International reaction: USA, UK, France condemned terror attack and expressed condolences to India; called for restraint on military escalation.
India-China relations took a significant positive turn in October 2024 after 4 years of strained ties following the Galwan clash (June 2020). October 2024 agreement: India and China reached an agreement on patrolling arrangements at Depsang Plains and Demchok — the last two remaining friction points on the LAC in Eastern Ladakh; patrolling rights for Indian forces restored at multiple patrol points; both sides began phased disengagement; Modi-Xi bilateral at BRICS Kazan (October 22–24, 2024): First formal bilateral meeting between PM Modi and President Xi Jinping since the Galwan clash — held at BRICS Summit in Kazan, Russia; both leaders agreed to normalise ties + resume diplomatic + military talks; Special Representatives meeting: Ajit Doval (NSA/Special Representative) + Wang Yi (Chinese FM/Special Representative) met in December 2024 — first boundary talks meeting in 5 years; agreed to resume CBMs (Confidence Building Measures); Trade: India-China bilateral trade = $120B+ (China remains India's largest trade partner despite tensions); India's trade deficit with China = ~$85B (concern); India's ongoing vigilance: India continues to build border infrastructure (BRO roads, tunnels, Vibrant Villages Programme); ITBP deployment maintained; satellite surveillance of LAC; Remaining issues: CPEC (through PoK) — India opposition unchanged; Arunachal Pradesh — China's claim unchanged; China-Pakistan relationship; Indian companies still face FDI restrictions on Chinese investment; 270+ Chinese apps still banned; Phased normalisation: Flight connectivity + visa resumption being discussed; economic ties calibrated (India cautious about strategic dependencies).
The Gaza conflict — triggered by Hamas's October 7, 2023 attack (1,200 Israelis killed; 250 hostages) and Israel's massive military response — continued through 2024–25 with profound regional and global consequences. Gaza 2024–25: Israel's ground + air operation in Gaza continued (43,000+ Palestinian deaths by end of 2024); humanitarian crisis — food, water, medicine shortage; ICJ provisional measures (South Africa genocide case — Israel ordered to ensure humanitarian access); Ceasefire attempts: Qatar + Egypt + USA-mediated ceasefire Phase 1 (January 2025) — hostage-for-prisoner exchange; fragile; West Bank operations: Israel also launched Jenin + Tulkarm + Nablus military operations; settlements expansion; Hezbollah-Israel: Ceasefire November 2024 (after Israel ground operation in South Lebanon; Nasrallah killed Sept 28, 2024); Iran-Israel: Iran launched ballistic missile attacks on Israel (October 2024); Israel struck Iranian military facilities in Isfahan; both sides pulled back; Syria collapse: Assad government fell December 8, 2024 (rebel coalition led by HTS — Hayat Tahrir al-Sham); 13-year civil war ended abruptly; new Syrian government; ISIS concern in power vacuum; Houthi attacks: Yemen-based Houthis continued drone + missile attacks on Red Sea shipping (disrupting global trade — ships rerouted around Africa); USA + UK strikes on Houthi targets; India's position: Consistently called for immediate ceasefire + two-state solution; condemned Hamas terrorism (Oct 7) + expressed concern for civilian deaths; abstained on some UNGA resolutions; Indian workers in Israel returned; IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Corridor) delayed due to conflict; oil prices + supply chains affected.
Sheikh Hasina ouster (August 5, 2024): Bangladesh witnessed a dramatic political transformation — PM Sheikh Hasina (in power since 2009; 15+ years) was forced to resign and flee to India on August 5, 2024 after a mass student-led protest movement (began as agitation against quota system in government jobs; escalated to general anti-government revolt; 300+ killed in crackdown). Interim Government: Muhammad Yunus (Nobel Peace Prize laureate 1996 — Grameen Bank; microcredit pioneer) appointed Chief Adviser of Bangladesh's Interim Government (August 8, 2024); supported by Bangladesh military + student leaders; Yunus = widely respected globally but 84 years old. India-Bangladesh relations post-August 2024: Strained significantly — India sheltered Hasina (she is in India; India has not said she will be handed over despite Bangladesh's extradition request); anti-India sentiment in Bangladesh (protests near Indian High Commission; "India Out" slogans); Hindu minority attacks in Bangladesh — multiple incidents of attacks on Hindu temples, homes, businesses (India expressed concern; Bangladesh interim government condemned); Teesta river water agreement — Yunus government willing to discuss (Hasina had been unable to finalise due to WB government opposition in India); Trade: India = Bangladesh's largest trading partner; trade largely continues; LCS (Land Customs Stations) operational; Security concerns: Bangladesh-Pakistan improved ties concern India; Bangladesh military's relations with China + Turkey + Pakistan deepening; Rohingya: Yunus government engaging with Myanmar + international community on Rohingya repatriation.
The Russia-Ukraine War (began February 24, 2022) entered its third year in 2024–25 with significant developments. Military situation 2024: Ukrainian Kursk incursion (August 2024) — Ukraine launched cross-border military operation into Russia's Kursk Oblast — first time foreign forces on Russian soil since WWII; Ukraine held ~1,300 sq km temporarily; Russia eventually pushed back; Russian advances in Donetsk: Russia made slow but consistent gains in Donetsk Oblast (Avdiivka fell February 2024; Pokrovsk area under pressure 2025); Long-range strikes: Both sides striking deep into each other's territories; Ukraine targeting Russian oil facilities + military installations; Russia targeting Ukrainian infrastructure (electricity, heating, water — war of attrition on civilian infrastructure). Trump factor: Donald Trump (returned as US President January 20, 2025) made Ukraine peace a priority; promised to "end the war in 24 hours" (campaign rhetoric); appointed Keith Kellogg as Ukraine-Russia Special Envoy; Peace negotiations (2025): Trump pushed for ceasefire; Ukraine concerned about territorial concessions (Russia controls ~20% of Ukraine's territory including Crimea + parts of Donetsk, Luhansk, Zaporizhzhia, Kherson); Zelensky demanded security guarantees + No NATO concessions; Russia demanded: recognition of territories, no NATO for Ukraine, demilitarisation; European security: European nations alarmed by possible US disengagement — EU leaders discussed own defence spending increase; UK + France leading European support for Ukraine; India's role: PM Modi visited both Russia (July 2024) and Ukraine (August 2024) — balanced diplomacy; India called for resolution respecting sovereignty + territorial integrity; no arms to either side.
India's space milestones 2024–25: Gaganyaan TV-D1 (October 21, 2023) — Test Vehicle Abort Mission success; crew module recovered from sea; key Gaganyaan milestone; Aditya-L1 at L1 (January 6, 2024) — India's first solar observatory reached Lagrange Point 1; monitoring Sun continuously; XPoSat (January 1, 2024) — India's first dedicated X-ray polarimetry satellite (studies black holes + neutron stars); INSAT-3DS (February 2024) — advanced meteorological satellite for better cyclone + monsoon forecasting; NISAR (NASA-ISRO SAR): Joint Earth observation satellite — launch planned 2025 (delayed from 2024); dual-band SAR (L+S); mm accuracy; Spadex (Space Docking Experiment — January 2025): India successfully demonstrated space docking technology (Jan 16, 2025) — 4th country after USA, Russia, China to demonstrate in-space docking; critical for future Chandrayaan-4 (sample return), Gaganyaan space station aspirations; Skyroot Aerospace (private) — Vikram-1 orbital launch attempt planned 2025; Global space milestones: Boeing Starliner crisis (2024): NASA astronauts Suni Williams + Butch Wilmore stranded at ISS (Boeing Starliner had thruster failures; they were supposed to stay 8 days; stayed 9 months; returned via SpaceX Dragon Feb 2025); highlights Boeing vs SpaceX commercial crew competition; Artemis II (NASA — planned 2025–26): First crewed lunar flyby since 1972 (Apollo); Artemis III = lunar landing (2026 target); India signed Artemis Accords 2023; SpaceX Starship: Largest rocket ever built — multiple successful test flights 2024; booster caught by launch tower ("mechazilla" arms) — revolutionary reusability; Lunar missions: JAXA + ispace (Japan) lunar lander attempt; ESA + India cooperation.
Nobel Prizes 2024 — key highlights: Physiology or Medicine: Victor Ambros + Gary Ruvkun — discovery of microRNA and its role in gene regulation; microRNA = small non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression at post-transcriptional level; foundational to understanding development, disease (cancer, cardiovascular); Physics: John Hopfield + Geoffrey Hinton — foundational discoveries enabling machine learning with artificial neural networks; Hopfield networks (associative memory models); Hinton = "Godfather of Deep Learning" (backpropagation; Boltzmann machines); Hinton notably left Google 2023 to speak freely about AI risks; Physics Nobel for computer science = controversial but recognised AI's foundational physics; Chemistry: David Baker (computational protein design) + Demis Hassabis + John Jumper (Google DeepMind — AlphaFold2 AI system; predicted 3D structure of ~200 million proteins; revolution in biology + drug discovery); AlphaFold3 (2024) extended to DNA + RNA + small molecules; Literature: Han Kang (South Korea) — "intense poetic prose confronting historical traumas"; works: The Vegetarian, Human Acts, The White Book; first South Korean and first Asian woman to win Nobel Literature; Peace: Nihon Hidankyo (Japan — organisation of atomic bomb survivors — Hibakusha from Hiroshima + Nagasaki) — for working toward nuclear-weapons-free world; Economics: Daron Acemoglu + Simon Johnson + James A. Robinson — research on how institutions shape prosperity; "Why Nations Fail" concepts; colonialism's lasting impact on institutions.
COP29 (29th Conference of Parties to UNFCCC) was held in Baku, Azerbaijan, November 11–22, 2024. Called the "Finance COP" — primary agenda was establishing the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) — the climate finance target to replace the $100 billion/year pledge (which expires 2025). Key outcomes: NCQG (New Collective Quantified Goal) agreed: Developed countries committed to mobilise $300 billion per year by 2035 for developing countries' climate action; India + developing nations deeply disappointed: India demanded $1.3 trillion/year (India's chief negotiator Chandni Raina — called $300B "abysmally small" — "a paltry sum"); $1.3 trillion "goal": The full agreement mentions $1.3 trillion/year mobilisation (public + private) as a broader goal — but only $300B is the hard commitment; this distinction = major point of contention; Carbon markets (Article 6): COP29 finalised rules for international carbon trading (Article 6.4 mechanism — UN-supervised; and bilateral Article 6.2 agreements); India's objections: India criticised the inadequacy of $300B; called it insufficient for scale of climate transition needed; pointed out developed nations' historical responsibility; Azerbaijan as host: Controversial — oil + gas producing state hosting climate conference; country's president called oil "gift of God"; COP30 2025 = Belém, Brazil (Amazon focus).
Major natural disasters in India 2024: Wayanad Landslides (July 30, 2024): One of India's deadliest landslides — 300+ deaths in Mundakkai-Chooralmala area of Wayanad, Kerala; triggered by extreme monsoon rainfall; Chooralmala plantation workers' colony + Mundakkai village devastated; bodies recovered for weeks; PM Modi visited; Army + Navy + NDRF rescue; over 10,000 displaced; disaster reignited debate on encroachment in ecologically sensitive Western Ghats + deforestation; Gadgil + Kasturirangan panel recommendations on Western Ghats' Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) remain contentious and partially unimplemented; Andhra Pradesh Floods (September 2024): Severe flooding in Vijayawada + Krishna district following Budameru river breach; 50+ deaths; lakh displaced; large-scale relief; infrastructure damage; Sikkim GLOF aftermath (October 2023 — continued recovery 2024): Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) — South Lhonak Lake burst; Teesta river flooded; Chungthang dam destroyed; 100+ deaths; army infrastructure damaged; recovery ongoing through 2024; Tamil Nadu rains (November–December 2024); Heat wave 2024 (record temperatures — Delhi 47°C+; Phalodi Rajasthan = 51°C in May 2024 — India's highest recorded). Policy responses: Disaster Management Amendment Act 2024 (covers pandemics + urban disasters more explicitly); Western Ghats ESA notification delayed again (Kerala opposition + farmer groups); National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping accelerated; GLOF early warning systems being installed in NE India + Himachal + Uttarakhand; National Heat Action Plan strengthened.
Wildlife and Biodiversity 2024–25: Cheetah Reintroduction Project: Cheetahs from Namibia (Sept 2022) + South Africa (Feb 2023) — total 20 cheetahs initially; mortality issues (11 cheetahs died by mid-2024 — diseases, territory injuries, health complications); NTCA review; expert panel recommendations; Kuno National Park (MP) → some cheetahs moved to Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary; India's first cheetah births (3 cubs born in Kuno in January 2023) — some survived; project continues with modifications + veterinary care improvement; Tiger Census 2022 results (released 2023): India = 3,682 wild tigers (world's 75%+ wild tiger population); Madhya Pradesh = most tigers (785); Project Tiger 50 years (1973–2023) celebrated; India has 54 tiger reserves; UNESCO Heritage: Moidams of Ahom Kingdom (Assam) = India's 42nd UNESCO World Heritage Site (2024); Hoysala temples = 41st (2023); COP16 Biodiversity (Cali, Colombia, October 2024): COP16 to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) — Cali, Colombia; negotiations on Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) implementation (2022 — 30×30 target — 30% land + ocean protected by 2030); Digital Sequence Information (DSI) fund for biodiversity agreed; developing nations access to genetic resource benefits (Nagoya Protocol implementation); Vulture Recovery Programme (diclofenac ban anniversary — India's ban 2006 led to vulture recovery); Great Indian Bustard (GIB): Supreme Court vs power lines in Rajasthan — GIB nearing extinction (200 birds remaining); SC order to underground power lines; Leopard census 2022 = 13,874 leopards (largest in world).
India's renewable energy transition has been one of the world's most ambitious in 2024–25. Current status (early 2025): India's total installed RE capacity = ~220 GW+ (solar ~85 GW + wind ~47 GW + hydro ~47 GW + bio-energy + small hydro); India = world's 4th largest solar energy country; NDC target: 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030 — on track; Key schemes: PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana (February 2024): 1 crore rooftop solar households; 300 units free electricity/month; subsidy up to ₹78,000; 1.5 crore+ applications received by end 2024; implemented faster than expected; ISTS waiver: Green energy projects exempted from inter-state transmission charges (ISTS) — reduces cost of RE; Offshore wind: India's first offshore wind tender issued (Gujarat + Tamil Nadu coasts); target 37 GW offshore wind by 2030; Pumped Storage Hydro (PSH): 62 GW PSH projects pipeline — grid balancing for RE intermittency; Green Hydrogen: National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM) — 5 MTPA by 2030; SIGHT scheme (₹17,490 crore) — electrolyser + production incentive; first green hydrogen projects commissioned in 2024 (NTPC, IOCL, GAIL); Nuclear: Budget 2025 = Nuclear Energy Mission — 5 small modular reactors (SMRs) indigenous development; PFBR Kalpakkam approaching commissioning; OGES (One Grid, One Solar, One World): India's ISA + OSOWOG initiative; Renewable Energy Employment: India = 1 million+ RE sector jobs (IRENA data); Solar manufacturing: PLI scheme ₹24,000 crore for solar PV modules; reducing China dependence.
Major health developments 2024–25: Mpox (Monkeypox) Global Health Emergency 2024: WHO declared Mpox a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) — August 14, 2024 (2nd declaration after 2022); new Clade Ib variant in Democratic Republic of Congo + East Africa; more severe, higher transmission; India = surveillance strengthened; no major domestic outbreak; HMPV (Human Metapneumovirus) China cluster (January 2025): Reports of surge in HMPV infections in China; India issued surveillance advisories; HMPV = common respiratory virus; not a new pathogen (exists since 2001); no cause for alarm (unlike COVID); India's National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) monitoring; Nipah Virus (Kerala 2024): Another Nipah cluster in Kerala (fruit bats = reservoir; 1–2 deaths; aggressive containment by Kerala government — contact tracing, isolation, testing; contained without major outbreak); Kerala = 5th Nipah outbreak since 2018; Tuberculosis (TB): India = highest TB burden globally; National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP) — target = eliminate TB by 2025 (global target 2030 — India ambitious); Ni-kshay Mitra scheme — 1.7 lakh volunteers supporting TB patients; Genome India Project (Phase 1 complete 2024): 10,000 whole genomes of Indians sequenced; IndiGen reference genome established; India-specific genetic variants for diabetes + cardiovascular disease identified; Phase 2 = 1 million genomes; ICMR milestones: Cervavac (SII's HPV vaccine) rollout expanded; Malarial vaccine R21 (Oxford + SII) WHO approval 2023 — India rollout planned; Sickle Cell Disease elimination mission (100% screening + diagnosis + treatment target).
India's defence sector witnessed several landmark developments in 2024–25. INS Arighat (August 2024): India's second nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) commissioned — more powerful than INS Arihant; carries K-15 SLBMs + K-4 SLBMs (3,500 km range, under testing); completes India's nuclear triad at sea (land + air + sea); Operation Sindoor (May 2025): In response to Pahalgam attacks — India launched targeted military strikes on terror infrastructure in Pakistan + PoK; significant escalation; India claimed precision strikes on 9 terrorist sites; Pakistan claimed civilian casualties; ceasefire mediated (details classified); Tejas Mark 1A deliveries: HAL began deliveries of Tejas Mk 1A to IAF (83 ordered, ₹48,000 crore); significant delays from original schedule; AESA radar + EW suite + refuelling probe; AMCA (Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft): ADA design finalised; India's 5th-gen stealth fighter; development proceeding; MQ-9B Reaper drones: India finalising deal for 31 armed drones from USA (15 for Navy + 8 each for Army + Air Force) — ₹32,000 crore approx; S-400 (Triumf): All 5 squadrons ordered from Russia — delivery continuing despite CAATSA pressure; Defence exports (FY2024): ₹21,083 crore — record; 100+ countries; BrahMos to Philippines (2022 deal, deliveries 2024); Akash SAM to Armenia; Nagastra-1: India's first indigenous loitering munition inducted (Solar Industries, 2024); Budget 2025 defence allocation: ₹6.81 lakh crore — largest ever; 23% of total budget; Agniveer scheme: After 2022 introduction — first Agniveers completing 4-year tenure (2026); retention + absorption debates ongoing.
Key environmental policies 2024–25: PM E-DRIVE Scheme (2024, ₹10,900 crore): Replaced FAME-II (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid + Electric Vehicles); funds 10,900 e-buses + 24 lakh e-2W + 3 lakh e-3W + EV charging infrastructure; EV Policy (March 2024): Customs duty on imported EVs reduced from 100% to 15% for companies committing ≥$800M investment + local manufacturing within 3 years — attracted Tesla India interest; Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS): India's domestic carbon market launched (2023); Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) administers; Energy Saving Certificates + Carbon Credit Certificates; designated consumers in energy-intensive sectors; part of India's NDC commitment; Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC): India + Indonesia co-led (COP27, 2022); protecting + restoring mangroves globally; MISHTI (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes): India's domestic mangrove programme (Budget 2023–24) — coastal mangrove restoration through MGNREGS + Compensatory Afforestation Fund; Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment): PM Modi initiative — promote pro-planet behaviour (reduce single-use plastic, energy conservation, food waste reduction); Plastic Waste Management Rules 2022: Ban on single-use plastics (SUPs) extended + implementation ongoing — compliance mixed; Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act 2023: Amended Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam — clarified which lands need forest clearance; strategic projects (defence, railway corridors) partially exempted; tribal communities' rights concerns; challenged before SC; Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Groundwater recharge + water conservation; CGWB monitoring shows groundwater depletion remains serious in North India.
India's semiconductor ambitions took concrete shape in 2024–25 with groundbreaking ceremonies and approvals. Micron Technology ATMP (Sanand, Gujarat): India's first semiconductor facility — Assembly, Testing, Marking, and Packaging unit; groundbreaking June 2023 (PM Modi + US President Biden witnessed MoU); construction progressing rapidly; operational target 2025; ₹22,500 crore total investment; US + India government co-funded under ISM (India Semiconductor Mission); will assemble + test DRAM + NAND flash chips; Tata Electronics + PSMC (Dholera, Gujarat): India's first commercial semiconductor fabrication (FAB) plant; 28nm technology node; ₹91,000 crore total investment; groundbreaking Feb 2024 (PM Modi); Taiwan's PSMC (Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation) as technology partner; 50,000 wafers/month target; operational target 2026–27; CG Power + Renesas (Japan) + Stars Microelectronics: ATMP unit in Sanand; ₹7,600 crore; Renesas = Japanese semiconductor major; TSAT (Tata Semiconductor Assembly and Test) — Jagiroad, Assam; Kaynes Technology OSAT; ISM total = ₹76,000 crore incentive scheme. Deep tech developments: Quantum Mission deployment: T-Hubs announced at IIT Bombay (quantum computing) + IISc + C-DAC; National Quantum Mission (NQM): ₹6,003 crore; 50–1000 qubit computers by 2031; ISRO QKD: India demonstrated Quantum Key Distribution over free space (2024 — ISRO experiment) — step toward quantum-safe communications; Deep Ocean Mission: MATSYA 6000 shallow water test dives completed successfully; full depth tests ongoing.
The Maha Kumbh Mela 2025 — held in Prayagraj (Allahabad), Uttar Pradesh from January 13 to February 26, 2025 (45 days) — was the largest human gathering in recorded history. Key facts: Attendance: Estimated 40–45 crore (400–450 million) visitors over 45 days — exceeding previous records; Maha Kumbh = held every 12 years at Prayagraj (at Sangam — confluence of Ganga, Yamuna, mythical Saraswati); last Prayagraj Maha Kumbh = 2013; Dates: Makar Sankranti (Jan 14) — first major bath; Mauni Amavasya (Jan 29) — largest single-day crowd (8–10 crore estimated on this day alone); Basant Panchami (Feb 3); Maghi Purnima (Feb 12); Maha Shivratri (Feb 26) — last major bath; Shahi Snan (Royal bath): Akharas (Hindu monastic orders) take first bath in traditional procession; 13 Akharas; Naga Sadhus; Infrastructure: UP government invested ₹4,000+ crore in infrastructure — temporary city for the event; 40 floats (pontoon bridges); tent cities; LED streetlights; QR-coded tents; AI surveillance; digital lost-and-found system; 50,000+ police + NDRF; AI-powered crowd management; UNESCO recognition: Kumbh Mela is on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) list (since 2017); Stampede tragedy (January 29, 2025): During Mauni Amavasya — one of the largest single-day crowds — a tragic stampede killed 30+ pilgrims; crowd management failure; State government review; PM Modi, President Murmu took holy dip; International visitors (Buddhist monks, foreign tourists); Religious significance: Bath at Triveni Sangam = liberation from cycle of birth-death (moksha); 12-year cycle — Ardh Kumbh (6 years), Kumbh (12 years), Maha Kumbh (12 years at Prayagraj).
The question of a caste-based census dominated Indian political discourse in 2024–25, emerging as a major issue in the Lok Sabha elections and continuing to generate debate. Background: India's Census has collected caste data for SCs + STs since 1961; but data on Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and upper castes has not been officially counted since 1931 (British India Census); estimates suggest OBCs = 40–52% of India's population; Socio-Economic and Caste Census 2011 (SECC): Conducted but OBC data not officially released due to data quality concerns. Bihar Caste Survey (October 2023): Bihar government (CM Nitish Kumar) conducted a caste survey — found: OBCs + EBCs = 63% of Bihar's population; results published; led to demands for proportional reservation increase (beyond 50% SC/ST/OBC cap set by Indra Sawhney 1992); Rahul Gandhi + Congress made caste census + reservation reform a central 2024 election demand — "X-ray of India" (Rahul Gandhi's phrase); BJP's position: Initially resisted; post-election weakening (BJP lost UP) — PM Modi agreed to include caste enumeration in next Census (2025 Census); OBC data to be collected as part of next decennial census; Mandal 2.0 debate: Is India heading toward expansion of OBC reservations? Sub-classification of OBCs? SC sub-classification judgment (August 2024) allows states to sub-classify within SC quota — same logic may apply to OBCs; 50% cap challenge: Tamil Nadu + Maharashtra have exceeded 50% (Karnataka + others want to) — requires 9th Schedule protection + Constitution Amendment; Women's Reservation Act operationalisation requires delimitation + Census.
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 — India's first comprehensive education overhaul since 1986 — continued to be implemented in 2024–25. Key NEP 2020 provisions being rolled out: 5+3+3+4 structure: Foundational (3–8 years), Preparatory (8–11), Middle (11–14), Secondary (14–18); replaces 10+2 system; Mother tongue medium: Education in mother tongue/regional language until Grade 5 (preference); multilingual approach; NIPUN (National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy): Basic literacy + numeracy by Grade 3 (by 2026–27); Curriculum framework: NCF (National Curriculum Framework) updated for foundational + school stages; Higher education: Academic Bank of Credits (ABC); multiple entry + exit options in degree programmes; IIT/NIT + central university ABC integration; PM USHA (Universities for Skills and Higher Education — PMKVY 4.0 + NEP alignment); National Credit Framework (NCrF): Credits for vocational + academic + co-curricular seamlessly; Budget 2025 education: 50,000 Atal Tinkering Labs; AI in schools; 5 national skill excellence centres; PM Research Fellowship (PMRF) enhanced; new IITs + IIITs (recent graduates); CUET (Common University Entrance Test): National testing for central universities — CUET-UG + CUET-PG; NTA (National Testing Agency) credibility crisis (NEET-UG 2024 controversy — paper leak alleged; massive protests; Supreme Court + CBI + HC investigations; NTA head replaced; reforms in exam system); NEET controversy (2024): Alleged paper leaks in NEET-UG 2024 — led to NTA reforms; exam dates shifted; security protocols tightened; independent high-level committee constituted by government.
Paris Olympics 2024 (July 26 – August 11, 2024): India's performance — 6 medals (1 Silver + 5 Bronze) — disappointing vs target but some bright spots: Neeraj Chopra = Silver (Javelin throw — 89.45 m; couldn't defend his Tokyo 2020 Gold; Grenada's Anderson Peters won Gold); Swapnil Kusale = Bronze (50m Rifle 3 Positions — India's first Olympic shooting bronze in this event); Men's Hockey = Bronze (beat Spain 2–1 — consecutive Olympic bronze; PR Sreejesh retired after; Captain Harmanpreet Singh = world's best drag flicker); Vinesh Phogat = Disqualified (50 kg wrestling final — found 100 grams overweight on Day 2 of competition; would have been India's first women's wrestling gold; CAS appeal failed; announced retirement; Sports Ministry reviewing wrestling federation); Aman Sehrawat = Bronze (wrestling — youngest Indian Olympic medallist); Ankita Bhakat + Tarundeep Rai (archery); Total medal count = 6 (disappointing vs 2023 hopes); Cricket: India won T20 World Cup 2024 (June 2024; USA + West Indies co-hosts; India beat South Africa by 7 runs in final; PM Modi received team at Wankhede Stadium); Rohit Sharma + Virat Kohli retired from T20I after World Cup win; Virat Kohli announced Test retirement (January 2025); Chess: India won both Open + Women's Chess Olympiad 2024 (Budapest) — historic first "double gold" in Chess Olympiad for India; Gukesh D = World Chess Champion (December 2024 — defeated Ding Liren; youngest World Chess Champion at 18 years).
India's flagship welfare schemes saw significant expansions and developments in 2024–25. PM-KISAN (₹6,000/year to farmers): Reached 11th + 12th instalment payments (Oct 2024 + Feb 2025); 11.5 crore+ beneficiaries; ₹3.24 lakh crore total disbursed; PM Awas Yojana (Urban + Rural) 2.0: PM Awas Yojana extended and expanded — PMAY-U 2.0 (targets 1 crore urban houses 2024–27; ₹2.2 lakh crore outlay); PMAY-G targets completed (3 crore rural houses 2022–24); new homes for middle class (3rd category added); Ayushman Bharat PM-JAY extension (September 2024): Extended to cover all citizens above 70 years (additional 6 crore senior citizens regardless of income; ₹5 lakh/year health cover); earlier covered only bottom 40% families; Lakhpati Didi Progress: Target 3 crore rural women SHG members earning ₹1 lakh+ annually; 1 crore+ Lakhpati Didis achieved by Feb 2025; drone training + LED manufacturing + plumbing skills; Drone Didi: 15,000 women SHGs receiving drones for agricultural services; PM Vishwakarma: 18 traditional artisan trades; 1 crore+ registered; ₹15,000 toolkit + credit at 5%; Jal Jeevan Mission: 15 crore+ households with tap water (from 3.2 crore in 2019); extended to 2028 (Budget 2025); PM Ujjwala: 10.3 crore LPG connections to BPL women; Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay SanraksHan Abhiyan (PM-AASHA): Strengthening MSP procurement; POSHAN Abhiyaan (PM Nutrition Mission): Tackling malnutrition + stunting; PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana (Budget 2025): 100 low-agricultural-productivity districts — agriculture + credit + storage + irrigation focus.
The BRICS Summit 2024 was held in Kazan, Russia, October 22–24, 2024 under Russia's Presidency. Expanded BRICS membership: Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, UAE, Saudi Arabia joined as full members from January 1, 2024 (invitation at Johannesburg 2023); Argentina declined (new President Milei reversed Fernandez's decision); Saudi Arabia = "de facto partner" (not formally joined yet); BRICS now = 10 full members; Kazan Outcomes: Partner countries category created: 13 nations invited as BRICS partners — Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand, Vietnam, Cuba, Uganda, Bolivia, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Bahrain, Belarus; Modi-Putin bilateral; Modi-Xi bilateral (first since Galwan — agreement on Depsang + Demchok announced same week); De-dollarisation discussions: BRICS payment systems; cross-border payments in local currencies; Russia pushed for BRICS Bridge payment system (alternative to SWIFT); NDB expansion; India's balancing act: India participates in BRICS (with China + Russia) AND Quad (with USA + Japan + Australia) = strategic autonomy; India blocked explicit anti-dollar language in declaration; BRICS significance: Represents 45% of world population; 35% of global GDP (PPP); growing geopolitical weight; China + Russia trying to make it anti-Western bloc; India uses it as Global South platform without anti-Western positioning. NDB (New Development Bank): HQ Shanghai; Dilma Rousseff (Brazil) = President; $100B authorised capital; funding infrastructure in developing nations; India is a founding member.
The Supreme Court's 7-judge Constitution Bench judgment (August 1, 2024) — in Panjab v. Davinder Singh case — is one of the most significant reservations-related judgments in decades. Judgment (6:1 majority): States are permitted to sub-classify within Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) reservation quotas to provide preferential treatment to the most backward within those groups. What it means: E.g., Punjab can have a sub-quota within its 25% SC reservation — giving first preference to Valmikis and Mazhabi Sikhs (most socioeconomically deprived among SCs); once this quota fills, remaining seats go to other SC communities; Overruled E.V. Chinnaiah (2004): 5-judge bench in 2004 had held that SCs form a homogeneous group and cannot be sub-classified; this was wrong, the 2024 bench held; Justice B.R. Gavai's key direction (6th judge of the 7-judge bench): Creamy layer principle should apply even within SC/ST reservations — those SCs/STs who have already benefited sufficiently from reservations and are adequately represented should not continue getting reservation benefits; this is significant as currently creamy layer (income threshold) applies only to OBCs, not SC/ST; Justice Gavai became CJI May 2025 — implementation of his direction now important; Implications: Multiple states (Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Maharashtra) likely to sub-classify; challenges political representation within SC communities (powerful SC sub-groups may resist); Parliament may need to provide clarity via legislation; Dr. Ambedkar's intent: Bench noted sub-classification aligns with Ambedkar's vision of bringing the most disadvantaged sections forward; Anti-discrimination vs intra-group hierarchy = ongoing tension.
India's gig economy — workers engaged in platform-based work (Zomato, Swiggy delivery; Ola, Uber drivers; Urban Company home service workers; freelancers on digital platforms) rather than traditional employment — has grown to an estimated 7.7 million gig workers (2024) and is projected to reach 23.5 million by 2029–30 (NITI Aayog estimate). Policy developments 2024–25: Budget 2025–26: Announced identity cards + e-Shram registration for gig workers; social security benefits to be extended through PM Jan Arogya Yojana (health cover) + PM-JJY; a new scheme to be notified; Code on Social Security 2020: India's Social Security Code (one of 4 labour codes) has specific provisions for gig + platform workers (Chapter IX); definition: gig worker = person outside traditional employer-employee relationship earning from such work; Rajasthan's Gig Worker Law (2023): Rajasthan Platform Based Gig Workers (Registration and Welfare) Act 2023 — India's first state law specifically for gig workers; mandatory registration; welfare board; welfare fee (1–2% of each transaction by platform); cess for health + accident insurance; replicated interest from Karnataka, AP; IFAT (India Food + Agriculture Technology) + ONDC: Integrating small sellers into platform economy; Challenges: No minimum wage guarantee; no job security; no EPF/ESI; accident during work = personal liability; heat + weather stress during deliveries; algorithmic management; Delhi HC + SC cases: Multiple cases on gig worker classification; whether gig workers are "employees" or "independent contractors" — different rights flow; courts yet to give definitive ruling.
India's diplomatic calendar of 2024–25 was exceptionally active — PM Modi's 3rd term began with high-octane diplomacy. Key bilateral highlights: PM Modi-Trump meeting (Washington, February 2025): PM Modi's visit to USA after Trump's return to power; focus on trade deal (India offering to import more US oil, defence equipment, agricultural products to reduce deficit); Quad + Indo-Pacific cooperation reaffirmed; India-EU TTC (Technology + Trade Council): 1st TTC Ministerial meeting Brussels 2023; deepening tech cooperation; India-Italy G7 (Fascino): PM Meloni's close relationship with PM Modi; India attended G7 Apulia summit (June 2024 — Italy hosted); India = "guest" (not member); PM Modi took bilateral meetings at G7 with USA, UK, France, Germany, Japan, EU; Axiom-4 (ISS): Wing Commander Shubhanshu Shukla selected for Axiom Space Mission to ISS — represents deepening India-USA space cooperation; BAPS Abu Dhabi Hindu Temple (February 2024): PM Modi inaugurated first Hindu temple in Abu Dhabi — religious diplomacy + cultural soft power + 3.5 million Indian diaspora in UAE; PM Modi in Kyiv (August 2024): First Indian PM to visit Ukraine — peace signalling + balanced Russia-Ukraine diplomacy; PM Modi in Moscow (July 2024): India-Russia strategic ties reaffirmed; energy + defence; India-EFTA TEPA (March 2024): $100B FDI commitment; Kartarpur Corridor: Continuing (India-Pakistan pilgrimage route — open since 2019); Indian Workers in Conflict Zones: India evacuated 3,000+ Indians from Russia-Ukraine front (many cheated into Russian military service); MEA emergency operations.
India added to its UNESCO heritage portfolio and marked several cultural milestones in 2024–25. UNESCO World Heritage Site (2024): Moidams of the Ahom Kingdom — India's 42nd UNESCO World Heritage Site; burial mounds (Moidams) of Ahom kings in Charaideo district, Assam; Ahom dynasty ruled Assam for 600 years (1228–1826 — one of history's longest dynasties; never conquered by Mughals); domed brick mounds with internal chambers; reflects Tai-Ahom funerary traditions; nominated by India; inscribed at 46th World Heritage Committee session (New Delhi, July 2024 — India hosted World Heritage Committee 2024 — first time since 1984). UNESCO ICH 2023 (recent): Garba dance of Gujarat inscribed on UNESCO Representative List of ICH (December 2023); UNESCO 2024 session at New Delhi: India hosted the 46th Session of World Heritage Committee (July 21 – July 31, 2024); first time India hosted since 1984; PM Modi addressed opening session; Classical Languages (2024): India added 5 new Classical Languages — Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, Bengali (Cabinet decision October 2024) — taking total Classical Languages to 11 (Tamil 2004; Sanskrit 2005; Kannada + Telugu 2008; Malayalam 2013; Odia 2014; + 5 new 2024); Ram Temple Consecration (January 22, 2024): PM Modi consecrated Ram Lalla idol at Ayodhya Ram Temple (Pran Pratishtha ceremony) — massive national moment; construction continuing (temple to be completed 2025); invited global leaders + VIPs; historic for Hindu community; Nalanda University Campus: New campus inaugurated (June 2024) — revival of ancient Nalanda; UNESCO Heritage status of ancient Nalanda ruins.
📋 Quick Revision Table — Current Affairs 2025–26 · 15 Must-Know Facts
| Event/Topic | Key Fact | Critical Detail | Category |
|---|---|---|---|
| Union Budget 2025–26 | FM Nirmala Sitharaman | 8th consecutive | Feb 1, 2025 | Zero tax up to ₹12 lakh | Capex ₹11.21 lakh crore | Fiscal deficit 4.4% | PM Dhan-Dhaanya (100 districts) | Nuclear SMRs = 5 | Jal Jeevan extended to 2028 | Gig workers identity cards | Economy |
| Trump Tariffs 2025 | Liberation Day = April 2, 2025 | India = 26% | China = 145% | Universal 10% baseline | 90-day pause (except China) | India IT services NOT affected | China+1 = India benefits | India-US BTA negotiations | WTO concerns raised | Economy / IR |
| Pahalgam Attack 2025 | April 22, 2025 | 26 tourists killed | Baisaran meadow, J&K | TRF (LeT shadow) | Deadliest J&K attack since 2000 | IWT suspended | Wagah closed | Pakistan diplomats expelled | Operation Sindoor (May 2025) | India-Pakistan military escalation | Security / IR |
| New Criminal Laws | BNS + BNSS + BSA = July 1, 2024 | Replaced IPC + CrPC + Evidence Act | Zero FIR | 45-day judgment | E-summons | Community service as punishment | Sedition → Section 152 BNS | First FIR under BNS = July 1, 2024 (MP) | Polity |
| 18th Lok Sabha Elections | April–June 2024 | BJP = 240 seats | NDA = 293 | INDIA = 234 | Modi = 3rd term (June 9, 2024) | TDP (16) + JDU (12) = critical | Congress = 99 (from 52) | Bihar + Maharashtra state elections | Delhi = BJP won (Feb 2025) | Polity |
| Electoral Bonds Judgment | Feb 15, 2024 | 5-judge bench | Struck down EBS unanimously | Violates voters' right to information (Art 19(1)(a)) | ₹16,518 crore bonds sold | SBI submitted data to ECI | SC sub-classification Aug 2024 (6:1) | Polity / Judiciary |
| Nobel Prizes 2024 | Medicine = microRNA (Ambros+Ruvkun) | Physics = Neural networks (Hopfield+Hinton) | Chemistry = AlphaFold2 (Hassabis+Jumper) | Literature = Han Kang (first Asian woman) | Peace = Nihon Hidankyo (Japan) | Economics = Acemoglu+Johnson+Robinson | Hinton = "Godfather of Deep Learning" | Sci-Tech / Int'l |
| India Space 2024–25 | Aditya-L1 = L1 (Jan 6, 2024) | XPoSat (Jan 1, 2024) | Spadex = space docking (Jan 16, 2025) | India = 4th country for space docking | NISAR planned 2025 | Boeing Starliner = Suni Williams stranded 9 months | SpaceX Starship = booster caught | Artemis II = planned 2025–26 | Sci-Tech |
| India-China Normalisation | Depsang + Demchok = Oct 2024 | Modi-Xi BRICS Kazan | Doval-Wang Yi (Dec 2024) | First Modi-Xi since Galwan | Patrolling rights restored | CBMs resumed | Trade = $120B+ | 270+ apps still banned | BRO + Vibrant Villages ongoing | CPEC opposition unchanged | IR |
| Bangladesh 2024 | Sheikh Hasina fled India = Aug 5, 2024 | Muhammad Yunus = Chief Adviser Aug 8 | Students' quota protest = trigger | 300+ killed in crackdown | Hindu minority attacks | India sheltering Hasina | Bangladesh extradition demand | India-Bangladesh strained | Bangladesh + China + Pakistan ties deepening | IR / Neighbourhood |
| COP29 Baku 2024 | Nov 11–22, 2024 | Finance COP | NCQG = $300B/year by 2035 | India demanded $1.3 trillion | $300B = "abysmally small" (India) | Article 6 carbon markets finalised | Azerbaijan = oil state host | COP30 = Belém Brazil 2025 | Broader $1.3T goal (public+private) in full text | Environment / IR |
| Maha Kumbh 2025 | Prayagraj | Jan 13 – Feb 26, 2025 | 40–45 crore visitors | Largest human gathering in history | Stampede Jan 29, 2025 = 30+ deaths | UNESCO ICH since 2017 | Every 12 years at Prayagraj | Mauni Amavasya = 8–10 crore in one day | AI crowd management | Culture / Society |
| SC Sub-classification | Aug 1, 2024 | 7-judge bench (6:1) | States can sub-classify SC/ST quotas | Overruled E.V. Chinnaiah 2004 | Punjab: Valmikis+Mazhabi Sikhs priority | Justice Gavai: creamy layer for SC/ST | Gavai became CJI May 2025 | OBC sub-classification implications | Parliament may need legislation | Polity / Social |
| Sports 2024 | Paris Olympics = 6 medals (1S+5B) | T20 WC = India won | Chess Olympiad double gold | Neeraj = Silver | Vinesh Phogat = disqualified (100g overweight) | Hockey = Bronze (Sreejesh retired) | Gukesh D = youngest World Chess Champion (18 yrs, Dec 2024) | Rohit+Virat retired from T20I | Sports / Society |
| Moidams UNESCO 2024 | India's 42nd UNESCO WHS | Charaideo, Assam | Ahom dynasty 600 years | India hosted World Heritage Committee July 2024 (New Delhi) | 5 new Classical Languages (Oct 2024): Marathi+Pali+Prakrit+Assamese+Bengali | Total Classical Languages = 11 | Ram Temple consecrated Jan 22, 2024 | Nalanda University campus June 2024 | Culture / Heritage |
Introduction
The Trump administration's April 2025 tariff announcement — imposing 26% on Indian goods while targeting China at 145% — represents the most consequential external trade shock for India since the 2008 global financial crisis. Its effects are simultaneously disruptive and transformative.
Challenges for India
Sector-specific exposure: India's key US export sectors — pharmaceuticals ($8B), gems and jewellery ($10B), engineering goods, and textiles — face direct cost increase and potential demand contraction. Pharmaceutical exports deserve special attention as they supply generic medicines to millions of Americans; US leverage here could pressure India on IP protections. Supply chain disruption: Indian manufacturers integrated into global supply chains face cost escalation, reducing their competitiveness. Ripple effects: A slowing US economy (tariff-induced) reduces global demand generally, affecting India's services exports indirectly.
Opportunities — China+1 Acceleration
The most significant opportunity lies in the dramatic tariff differential — India at 26% vs China at 145%. Companies manufacturing electronics, chemicals, industrial equipment, and consumer goods in China are now actively seeking India as an alternative. Apple already manufacturing 14%+ of iPhones in India; TSMC's Taiwan geopolitical risk; Apple supplier diversification accelerates. PLI schemes + semiconductor investments position India to capture this shift. India's 90-day negotiating window is an opportunity to secure a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) that permanently institutionalises better US market access.
India's Strategic Response
India must simultaneously negotiate a BTA, expand manufacturing competitiveness, and ensure the 26% tariff doesn't become permanent. Offering to increase purchases of US oil, defence equipment, and agricultural goods reduces the bilateral trade deficit that triggered the tariff. Domestically, this is the moment to compress logistics costs, accelerate ease of doing business reforms, and build world-class manufacturing infrastructure — turning external pressure into internal transformation.
Conclusion
Tariff shocks, like all crises, contain the seeds of transformation. India's response — combining skilled diplomacy with accelerated domestic reform — will determine whether 2025's tariff shock becomes a setback or a springboard for India's next manufacturing leap.
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Sources: PIB · MEA · MHA · MoF · RBI · ISRO · NDMA · The Hindu · Indian Express · LiveMint · Updated to May 8, 2026
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